In terms of their beliefs both believed in Marxism. Marx saw Capitalism as wrong and history as a process of change. They therefore both believed in violent revolution by the workers after which the means of production would be for every ones benefit and shared (Communism). Lenin believed passionately in the ideals of communism even though he would ‘dilute’ these if conditions dictated he do so (e.g. advocating NEP). Stalin by contrast ran everything. His policies were often completely different from Communist ideas. People loyal to Stalin (e.g. Party apparatchiks) received privileges, holidays, houses etc. Lenin believed he was working for the people and was liked by many. By contrast Stalin only worked for Stalin. Unlike Lenin, he had no illusions that he was working for the people. Stalin did not care if he was liked of not.
A major difference between the beliefs of Lenin and Stalin was the concept of World Revolution. For Communism to survive in Russia there had to be world revolution. Lenin set up the Communist International (Comintern) in 1919 to spread communism. Lenin believed strongly in exporting revolution whenever possible. For example in 1920 the Red army marched into Poland, hoping the Polish workers, would rise against their government. However, the Poles drove the Russians out. He thought this reversal, together with the failed communist revolutions in Germany and Hungary, showed the time was not ripe. He did not however abandon his long-term beliefs in “world revolution”. Stalin by contrast believed firmly in the concept of “Communism in one country”. Although Stalin encouraged revolution this was only if it did not prove detrimental to the Soviet Unions interests.
Q2. Asses the impact that Lenin had on Russia, and the Russian people.
Before the Russian Revolution, Russia was ruled by the Tsar. The Tsar was an all-powerful autocratic ruler. He ruled without parliament, and most of the countries wealth and land was owned by a small noble class. Lenin played a central role in the fall of the Tsarist System. He was a leader of a small party, the Bolsheviks, but his brilliant leadership, opportunism, and organizational skills allowed his party to seize and hold onto power. It is unlikely that without Lenin the Bolshevik party would have succeeded in taking control of the Revolution and Russia. Whereas the Provisional Government wanted compromise, Lenin wanted Revolution. In Lenin’s April theses he urged Revolution. He called for an end to the ‘Capitalist War’, and demanded that power should be given to the Soviets- elected comities of workers, peasants, and soldiers. He demanded a Revolution against the Provisional Government as soon as possible, and in October/November 1917 he took power. After Lenin took power he established a communist system of government, which continued to impact the lives of Russians till almost the end of the 20th century.
Although Lenin was in power for only six years much change occurred during this time impacting on Russia and its people.
- When Lenin took power the peasants were given the Tsar’s and the Church’s lands. The factories and industries were put into the hands of the workers.
- Almost immediately after the revolution Lenin took Russia out of the First World War. However Lenin had to agree to the Treaty of Brest-Litvosk in 1918. The treaty meant that one-quarter of Russia’s population and land, and much of Russia’s heavy industry, iron and coal, was lost to Germany. However some lands were subsequently re-gained after Germany was defeated.
- Lenin’s activities in1917-1918 made him many enemies. The Civil War broke out in 1918 and lasted until 1920. Lenin was determined and ruthless in defeating the whites. He introduced “War Communism”. This made sure the army and towns were fed in order to win the war. People’s rights were severely restricted and it had a major effect on their lives. i) Farms and factories were put under control and private trade was banned; ii) Peasants were forced to give food to soldiers (Red Army) and also provide food for industrial workers. Many peasants objected to this and were either killed or sent to forced labour/prison camps; iii) Workers rights were stamped upon. Industrial workers were not allowed to strike and everyone (16-60 years of age) except sick and elderly had to work; iv) The secret police (CHEKA) repressed, hunted down, and murdered those who threatened the state. Although the Red Army won the Civil War, the effects of Lenin’s War Communism was famine and decline (from1920-1921> 7 million people died of starvation, workers abandoned towns, and industry declined). There were many revolts and mutinies due to Lenin’s War Communism, (e.g. Kronstadt Mutiny of 1921) which Lenin ordered to be put down ruthlessly.
- By 1920/1921 there was major economic problems and unrest. Now the Civil War had been won, it was necessary for Lenin to keep support of the people and to keep control of the public opinion. So Lenin decided to change the Communist Policy. In 1921 Lenin introduced a “New Economic Policy”(NEP) to restore order and prosperity (in particular Russia’s urgent need for food) after years of suffering through the Tsar, Revolution, Civil War, and War Communism. The NEP impacted in a major way on Russians lives as it essentially reversed ‘War Communism’. Basically NEP involved allowing; i) peasants to sell excess food (and pay tax on profits); ii) small businesses, e.g. shops, that were not under ‘state control’ could make a profit; iii) Important/ key industries under state ownership/control e.g. coal, steel, transport, stayed in the state control but salaries were increased to encourage greater efficiency. Although Lenin did not see the full impact of his NEP, this by the late 1920’s allowed economic recovery and more prosperity for people.
- Under Lenin more hospitals were built and medical care was free.
- Marriage laws were relaxed and divorce could be had for the asking.
- Women were given the same opportunities as men in education and careers.
- Despite economic difficulties, more schools were built. The strict classroom discipline of the Tsarist days was abandoned. In order to arouse the pupil’s interest and sense of responsibility, they were often allowed to organize the school routine themselves. At the worst, this lead to teachers struggling for survival among unruly pupils; but at the best it brought a spirit of friendliness and co-operation into the classroom.
- Universities were opened to the intelligent child from a working-class family but closed to the child of a former factory manager or landowner.
- Religion was permitted, but strongly discouraged, by Lenin’s Communists. Many churches were turned into schools or warehouses and priests were placed in the lowest group of non-working citizens.
In summary, although Lenin was in power for only a short period of time he had an immense influence on the lives of ordinary Russian citizens and on the nature of the society that would succeed him. He led Russia through revolution taking land from the Tsar and his followers and putting the means of industrial production into the hands of the workers. He succeeded in taking Russia out of the Great War, won the Civil War, and made sweeping social changes benefiting his people. However, the Civil War and Lenin’s policy of War Communism created severe stress in the country at large, leading to revolts and riots, strikes and unimaginable human suffering. In addition, on the negative-side he also introduced measures to severely restrict people’s freedom and introduced a repressive secret police. Despite these negative aspects, on balance I consider Lenin’s contribution was overwhelming positive.
“Lenin did more than any other political leader to change the face of the twentieth-century world. The creation of Soviet Russia and its survival were due to him”(AJP Taylor).
Q3 Asses the impact that Stalin had on Russia, and the Russian people.
Joseph Stalin had an enormous impact on Russia and the Russian people. He became leader after the death of Lenin. The NEP had made sure progress but more rapid growth was needed for the USSR to catch up with the West. This was central to Stalin’s policy of ‘Socialism in one country’. As Stalin summed up the situation “We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make up this leeway in ten years. Either we do it or they crush us”, Stalin 1931.
Development of Industry
To set about achieving modernisation, a series of Five-Year plans were drawn up by Gosplan, the state planning organisation, and Lenin’s NEP was ended by Stalin. These plans set ambitious targets for production in the vital heavy industries (coal, iron, oil, and electricity). The first Five-Year Plan ran from 1928 to 1933, and was followed by a second one in 1937. During this period, Stalin’s aim ‘to catch up with and out-distance America’ was not reached; but though not all targets of the Plans were hit, the overall achievement was tremendous. Although success was often grossly exaggerated, nevertheless, in less than ten years the USSR had almost doubled its industrial output.
The cost of Stalin’s Five- Year Plans was paid by the suffering of it workers. New industrial zones, towns, and cities were set up-often with poor quality housing. Long hours were worked for low pay and higher wages were offered to foreign workers with special skills required to work on new schemes. Bonuses were given for workers who could improve upon production targets as an inspiration to others, but these were often unrealistic targets for most workers. Much of the work was done by forced Labour Camps of criminals and political prisoners. The targets were propaganda tools-the government said they’d been broken but often it’s hard to tell how much was really achieved and how much was just propaganda. The workers were constantly bombarded with propaganda posters, slogans, and radio broadcasts. Often production was increased at the expense of quality. In many cases output figures were complete lies, and were falsified out of fear.
Changes in Agriculture
When Stalin took over as leader, agriculture was mainly being carried on by peasants working their own plots. It was vital to increase the food supplies to workers in the towns and cities or the Five-Year Plans wouldn’t succeed. Small-scale peasant farming was inefficient. Stalin forced peasants to collectivise (land was pooled together). The peasants resisted this change, so Stalin decided to use force. Stalin saw the Kulaks, the rich peasants, as the main enemies of change. Many of those who lost their farms were sent to do forced Labour in Siberia, or were shot. By 1934 about three quarters of the peasants farms had been brought into collectives, but this change was brought about at a tremendous cost. The amount of food produced fell sharply. Many peasants slaughtered their animals rather than give them to the collectives. The number of Russian cattle and horses fell by half between 1929 and 1923. The new system did not work at first and a bad harvest combined with Kulaks destroying crops and animals caused a serious famine. The number who starved to death is unknown but it probably ran into many millions. Stalin’s second wife Nadya committed suicide during this time in 1932, driven to despair by the suffering of the Russian people. The peasants showed their resentment by doing the least possible work on the farms, and working hard on their small private plots. In 1938, although the private plots made up only 3% of the area farmed, they contained over half the cattle. The peasants continued to resent Stalin and were afraid of Communist Power.
Social Changes
By the late 1930’s many Soviet workers had improved their conditions by acquiring well-paid skilled jobs and earning bonuses for meeting targets. However life and factory discipline under Stalin was strict. There were no payments for the unemployed since they were sent straight to another job. So unemployment was almost non-existent. For people unable to work due to illness there were sickness payments provided they had a good record at work. In 1932 a generous system of old age pensions was established. Heavy industry was given priority, which meant there were fewer consumer goods such as clothes, and radios, which ordinary people wanted to buy. Most people lived in houses provided by the State, but these were often over crowded. Normal life was very harsh.
The role of women changed greatly under Stalin. To help meet industrial targets, Stalin established thousands of new crèches and day care centres so mothers could work. By 1937 40% of industrial workers were women. Many new hospitals and clinics were built. Large numbers of doctors were trained, over half of them were women. By 1940 the USSR had more doctors per head of population than Great Britain.
Education became free and compulsory for all. So many more schools were built, and by 1934 all children between the ages of 7 and 14 went to a Seven Year School. After the age of fourteen, education laid particular stress on technical subjects, which were directly connected with the Five-Year Plan. Discipline was tightened throughout the educational system, because Stalin did not approve of the liberal methods in many schools. Stalin invested huge sums of money into training schemes based in colleges and in the work place. Adults were not neglected. The problem of illiteracy was tackled, and between 1920 and 1940, fifty million adults learned how to read and write.
Stalin believed that the easy divorces caused crime amongst young people and stricter marriage laws were reintroduced. He also ruthlessly repressed religion. Christians were persecuted as a political threat to Communism, and Priests were murdered or exiled. In 1929 the Church was banned from any activity except leading worship. In the Republics of Central Asia Muslim leaders were imprisoned or deported, and pilgrimages to Mecca were banned.
Terror and Purges
Stalin was one of the most tyrannical dictators the world has known. He inflicted Terror and death on the Russian people on an unimaginable scale. The most terrifying period in Stalin’s rule, known as the Purges, began in 1934. Stalin murdered his opponents in the party. Many included former loyal communists, such as Zinoviev and Kamenev. It was not only leading figures that were murdered. About one third of the Party were arrested on charges of anti-Soviet activities, and were either executed or sent to Labour Camps. Similarly the Red Army was purged. About 25,000 officers and virtually all generals were removed and executed. The Purges and Terror permeated all of Russian life. All people were affected. University lecturers and teachers, miners and engineers, factory managers and ordinary workers all disappeared. It was said that every family in the USSR lost someone in the purges. Anyone suspected of disloyalty to Stalin was taken away by the NKVD (the new secret police). Most were shot or sent to Labour Camps. People who wanted to avoid arrest did so by providing information about others-even if it was false. By 1939 between 5 and 10 million people were dead and between 9 and 18 million were political prisoners (precise numbers are not known). Stalin built his image as a saviour of the people. He controlled all information and the media spread his propaganda. There was no freedom. Huge portraits of Stalin were displayed everywhere, and the mere mention of his name brought tumultuous applause. No one liked to stop clapping first; his secret police might notice. No Tsar in Russian history earned such respect and fear from his people!
Q4. Who do you think was the more important figure in Russian History, Lenin or Stalin, or both?
Both Lenin and Stalin are giants in the History of the Soviet Union and the 20th century. It is difficult to determine which, if either, was the most singularly important figure.
Lenin’s greatest contribution was his role in establishing a Bolshevik Government. It was Lenin’s remarkable determination, ruthlessness, and clarity of vision that enabled the relatively small Bolshevik Party to seize and hold power. Without his Leadership, and his conception of the revolutionary party as a disciplined and military-style organization, it is highly possible that that the Bolshevik party would not have won the revolution, and the subsequent Communist Soviet Union may not have been established. Similarly, his brilliant leadership qualities and determination, and ruthlessness (e.g. “War Communism”), allowed him and Bolsheviks to preserve their authority and eventually win the Civil War. As a ‘Revolutionary Leader or Figure’, Lenin is second to none and in this context clearly surpasses Joseph Stalin.
It is important to bear in mind that Lenin was Head of State for only six years, compared to Stalin’s reign of almost thirty years. Hence in terms of a Head of State or Statesman, on balance Stalin was the most important figure especially in relation to impact on the economy and daily lives of the ordinary citizen. For example Stalin had a huge impact on industry by implementing a series of Five-Year Plans. In under ten years, the USSR had almost doubled its industrial output-but the price was misery and low living standards for Soviet Workers. Hence although Lenin laid the foundations of communism, it could be argued Stalin improved upon them. Similarly Stalin had an enormous affect on the lives of Russian peasants and destroyed the traditional peasant way of life by forced Collectivisation. Perhaps his most infamous role in Russian life was his Purges and reign of Terror. The ‘Great Terror’ continued with varying degrees of intensity until the 1940’s. It extended into all areas of Soviet life, claiming the lives of many millions of Soviet people, from generals and artists to ordinary factory workers. Stalin also was a central figure in the defeat of Nazi Germany and emerged from the war with huge domestic and international prestige. He dominated the politics of Eastern Europe after the 2nd World War. Later in life he became obsessed with American Economic and Military strength. This led to the Cold War and he attempted to match the military strength of the United States but he did not possess the economy to achieve this. In doing so he laid the foundation for the subsequent destruction of the Soviet Union economy and the communist political system.
In summary, Lenin was the more successful Revolutionary Figure/Leader. But Stalin’s impact as a State Leader was in my opinion far more prominent. Stalin had inherited an essentially backward peasant country in 1929. He bequeathed to his successors a nuclear superpower. This was achieved at the cost of great human suffering. For this reason, he is one of the most controversial figures of the Twentieth century, to some-a Hero Figure, and to others a Tyrannical Villain. “Like Peter the Great, Stalin, caring nothing for suffering, had seized Russia by the neck and heaved her into the forefront of the world’s nations”(N.C. Jackson).
By Davina Collins
