Europe In revolution

Waqar Jamshed

How far do you agree with the view that the nineteenth century proved to be a century in which nationalism played a dual role, on one hand transforming the European state system, while on the other hand ensuring that democracy and socialism did not challenge the power of established elites?

The Vienna settlement was concluded on June 8th, 1815; ten days before Napoleon's inevitable surrender became reality. The main goal of the settlement was widely recognised as to achieve such a balance of power, that no one state should be in the position to threaten the independence of another. Through this balance of power the European statesmen hoped to provide for stability in Europe and thus secure peace. Securing peace was also ensured by the efforts made to prevent further French aggression. Not all the principles, however, where this vague and idealistic. Especially the monarchs wished to secure their own position and work together to prevent revolutionary ideas from spreading. Thus came the principles of solidarity and legitimacy: all the 'legitimate' rulers should be bound to solidarity. The key aims of Vienna settlement were to restore the old system absolutism, restore the divided and weak state system in central Europe, prevent revolution across Europe, resolve disputes between states in Europe and prevent political change across Europe.

The concert of Europe also known as ‘congress system’ was much of the Vienna settlement and was a compromise between the rivals aims and ambitions of great powers. They wanted a settlement which would provide stability in Europe and prevent the outbreak of another general war. The concerts of Europe’s first primary objectives were to contain France, after decades of war achieve a balance of power between Europe's great powers, uphold the territorial arrangements made at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815 and in doing so

Prevent the rise of another Napoleon-esque figure which would result in another continent wide war.

The powers of Europe also wanted to keep old order which is ancient regime. It was established in France from15th century to the 18th century under the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties. Power in the Ancien Régime relied on three pillars: the monarchy, the clergy, and the aristocracy. They wanted absolutist monarchs in Europe except North West Europe where parliament had some powers, no vote or very limited franchise, aristocracies dominated political system. Vest majority of the people in society were excluded from political system. The peasant formed the largest section of the population but they were tied to locality because of feudal arrangements serfdom. That’s where the people start thinking of nationalism and liberalism as the wanted reform. There were the political ideas which led to revolutions in Europe. Nationalist demanded that people which shared a common culture based on language, race or religion should have their own unification or independent nationalist wars and revolution occurred in Greece (1821-29), western and central Europe (1848-49), Italy (1859-61), Germany (1866-70), and the Balkans (1871-1881). Liberals throughout Europe demanded that absolutism be abolished and elected parliaments only by property owners make laws instead of monarchs. Liberal revolutions occurred throughout Europe 1820-21, 1830-33, 1848-49. Conservatism was a political idea which defence of the old established order, church, landowning elites, tradition, customs, authority. Conservatives ideas were popular among the elites, old landed aristocracy, peasants and church. Democracy in which radical liberals demanded that every male citizen of a state whether he had property or not, should have the vote. They looked back to Jacobin France and classical Athens as examples to be copied. They participate in the 1848-49 revolutions.

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Nationalist rebellions occurred throughout Europe in the 19th century. The most significant ones occurred in Central, Southern and Eastern Europe. The Greek war of independent also commonly known as Greek revolution was significant in the sense that it combined modern nationalism with religion and was only the political revolution in the 19th century which the masses participate in. this was the beginning of the end of the Ottoman Turkish Empire in Balkans. Other nationalities which lived in the Ottoman and Austrian empire were influenced by the Greek success. Nationalist revolution led by liberals and nationalist movement failed elsewhere. There were several attempts in Germany, Italy and Austria to create nation states. The powers of Europe Austria, Prussia and Russia all insured that these attempts failed. Russia promoted nationalism in the Balkans in an attempt to break the Ottoman Empire and create friendly states in the Balkans. Austria, fearing that nationalities in her own empire which bordered the Balkan region might get ideas and allied her self with turkey, Britain and France in the Crimean war against Russia to stop nationalism. After mid-1850’s Austria was alone in defending the Vienna settlement as Russia used nationalism to gain more influence in the Balkans and Prussia was determined that she should expand in Germany and that meant using nationalist rhetoric.

In the 1840s, nationalism began to assert a strong hold among many European countries, and the Concert was unable to stop the unifications of Germany and Italy. As these two countries had shown, Europeans were filled with a new spirit of "real politics" that was strongly nationalistic and not afraid to use force to accomplish their goals.

The liberals and nationalist movements and revolutions in early 19th century failed to unify Italy. This was because they lacked popular support and Austria military dominance ensured that the revolutionary movements were crushed. Cavour, the PM of piedmont, the most modern of the Italian states realised the opportunities that the changed international opportunity presented. Cavour allied with France as France always wanted to reverse Austrian influence on Italy but could not strike while Austria, Russia and Prussia worked together to defend the Vienna settlement. In 1859 piedmont and France defeated Austria as Austria was the only one left to defend Vienna settlement. Northern Italy was unified under piedmont’s leadership. Cavour did not want to unify with southern Italy but the nationalists forced him to accept unification.

Austria and Prussia opposed unified German state. Liberal-nationalist wanted to create a constitutional state in which the Prussian monarch who would become Kaiser reigned but did not rule, this was opposed by Prussia. Prussia wanted to be a larger power and didn’t wanted French influence in Germany. There was a customs union, the Zollverein that developed throughout northern Germany in the part outside the Austrian Empire. This encouraged rapid economic development while it strengthened the role of Prussia as the largest German state within the Zollverein. The Zollverein gave the chance for the smaller states to following the footsteps of Prussia whose industrial powers was a threat. The Zollverein led the states to favour Prussia over. The main pushing force behind a unified Germany was the liberals and middles class who were strongly behind nationalism. Witch led to the mass movements for a unified Germany. In the 1860’s Prussia launched a series of lightening wars against Denmark, Austria and France. The result was the Germany was unified or more correctly Prussia colonised the rest of Germany. Bismarck is viewed more as an opportunist and good diplomat than a master planner. He was good at taking advantage of his opportunities and leading them the right way; many other factors had great roles in making the German Unification possible.

Between 1815 and 1914, an industrial revolution took place. The industries in the cities eventually won the competition with the rural industries. Because of the industrial revolution that took place, urbanisation started in the 19th century. Cities still needed many new people every now and again because of bad sanitary conditions and diseases. The cities however did not need a constant refill of people anymore. In 1800, there were only 23 cities with over 100.000 citizens. By 1900, there were 135 cities with over 100.000 citizens. Not everybody lived in the city permanently. There were several types of cities: cities with textile industry, cities with heavy industry and administrative/commercial cities. Industrial revolution also effected transportation. In the 19th century bicycles, steamships and trains made it easier for people to move further away. In the 20th century, the explosion motor further accelerated this process. An ever-growing part of world population became subdued to market economy. The revolution led to the expansion and rise of two new classes: the middle class and working class. In 17th century middle classes had been a major force for constitutional change in England and Holland and France, Italy, Greek and Germany in 18th century. The middle classes demanded constitutional change and social welfare. The working classes demanded democratic reforms, social welfare and the redistribution of wealth which result the rise of political parties and movements which represent the interest of these classes. European countries react differently to these pressures. Some European countries Britain, Holland, Sweden, Norway, Belgium, Italy and France liberalised their political system and democratic reforms and social welfare introduced. In Germany, elites divert people from democratic reform by using aggressive foreign policy but social welfare introduced. Austria and Russia totally ignored the demands of middle and working class which fuelled revolutionary and nationalist forces.

After the unification of Germany, Italy and Greece the nationalism increased in Balkans in the 1870’s. After a series of war and international negotiations took place which introduced three new states Romania, Bulgaria and Serbia. Serbia began to encourage nationalism among the Serb and Slav. Now multi ethnic states in Austrian empire began demand for independence. A series of Balkans wars led to the expansion of Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia. Austria was in panic as she had the most multi ethnic groups in Europe and because of the spread of nationalism in Austria. Austria pursued aggressive anti-Serb policies which Germany back which poisoned the international relations in Europe and led to First World War.

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