How Successfully did Mussolini Consolidate Fascist Power between 1922 and 1925?

By 1925 Mussolini had established himself as dictator of Italy, ruling by decree, carrying the full force of the law and possessing executive control of parliament. However in 1922, when he became Prime Minister, he was a long way from the dictatorial role he would later assume; the transition was not a smooth one. In the years between 1922 and 1925 a number of factors would assist Mussolini and the Fascists in consolidating the power they would need, such as the passing of the Acerbo law and the actions of the Blackshirts; such as corrupting elections to diminish opposition. There were also events, however, that would hold the Fascist party back from their aims and weaken their support such as the Matteoti Crisis, which concerned the murder of the socialist leader at the hands of the Fascists. What prevented Mussolini losing power was the way that he handled such situations and turned them around to strengthen the Fascist party.

In 1922 the Fascist party and Mussolini were not secure. Mussolini had relied on the efforts of others such as the King and other Liberal politicians, to get the party to its present position. It had certainly not been the glorious revolution that the Ras had expected. The Fascists had never secured more than 7% of the national vote and once in parliament Mussolini had no clear majority; only four ministers including himself were Fascist. There was nothing to say that Mussolini’s government would be any different to the Liberal governments that had ruled previously; he faced all the same problems. There was also the fact that Fascism lacked a coherent ideology and a clear set of policies. This was because Mussolini had adopted a very broad manifesto so as to attract all kinds of support, particularly from the elite. Bearing in mind all the weaknesses that seemed to burden Fascism on its outset, consolidation of the primarily non-existent power seemed impossible. If Mussolini had not overcome all the initial problems that he faced then consolidation of the Fascist party would have been very unsuccessful, these problems, when combined, would have made him a very weak candidate in parliament.

Mussolini was being pressurised from all sections of society , most influentially his own party was pressurising him from within. The Radicals wanted a revolution. The way that they had taken power left them craving for glory and violence. At the beginning, Mussolini set the party line by taking the moderate view. This angered the more fanatical members of the Ras. They wanted extremism and were disappointed in the way that Mussolini was handling the new-found power. However the Ras were very much divided. There were moderates and radicals within them, both of which lacked a decisive leader who could come close to opposing Mussolini effectively. If the Ras had found a dominant leader then the path to consolidation could have been very different. If they had not been so divided, they might have organised themselves to challenge Mussolini and make sure that the revolution and disintegration of the Liberal State that they craved would take place. In this case it would not have been Mussolini who consolidated the power of the Fascists, it would have been the Ras, who could also have opposed Mussolini’s rulings without reservations. This may have forced him to change his mind about the Grand Fascist Council and lead him to involve the Fascists more in his take-over; this could have resulted in Mussolini not gaining personal dictatorship by 1925 or consolidating Fascist power.

This is a preview of the whole essay

The way in which Mussolini relied on others to project him to power would be a consistent factor in his rise to a dictatorship. The King had always played a major role in assisting Mussolini and the Fascists, starting from when he opposed martial law at the onset of a Fascist uprising. The King was acknowledged as indecisive and did not prevent Mussolini from gaining the power he wanted. There was no intervention, even when dictatorship was imminent. Much of the power that Mussolini gained was not borne of his own merits. Particularly concerning the King, who was merely fearful of losing the throne and would play along with those he assumed would help him most. Parliament reacted in the same way. It gave Mussolini what he wanted, including emergency powers in 1922 and the passing of the Acerbo election law of 1923. He could not have consolidated his power so effectively if Parliament had not allowed him these freedoms. The Elite, whom Mussolini relied on for much of his support, carried on their assistance in his quest for power. They were rewarded by Mussolini changing his reforms and plans to suit them. For example, he halted his designs to increase land tax to procure their favour. Without the support of the elite the Fascists had no money or solid support at the top of the social hierarchy. If the elite withdrew their support, then the Fascist party may have declined. Mussolini had to cultivate symbiosis with the elites and therefore compromised his radical instincts which were to create a purely Fascist state. He did not do this and even retained most of the state machinery such as the police force. Mussolini also relied on the Blackshirts to support him. Without their intimidating tactics, which they still put into practice, the Fascists had no muscle behind Mussolini. This proves that the consolidation of Fascist power in 1925 was not achieved personally by Mussolini. Many of the factors influencing the Fascists’ rise were the work of others and Mussolini could not have successful consolidated power without them. If the people above had made different decisions, then the road to Fascist power would have led differently.

From the start, circumstances arose in which opposition could have been mobilised. Parliament could have revolted against Mussolini at any point; nothing forced them to pass Mussolini’s decrees. If they had liased with the king then they might have come to an agreement to back each other up. Especially when they realised they no longer had control of Mussolini. The most poignant circumstance in which opposition might have been mobilised was the murder of Giacomo Matteoti the socialist leader of parliament. This caused outrage and uproar within Italian society, many believing it to be a complete attack on democracy. Those normally loyal to Mussolini tore up Fascist membership cards. The crisis also showed up Mussolini’s opposition; thousands went to Matteoti’s funeral and former Prime Minister Orlando, who supported Mussolini, said that Fascism was putting ‘restrictions on personal freedom.’ As Mussolini had been directly linked with the murder, criticisms came from all sections of the political spectrum. The future of Fascism was hanging in the balance. The King could have dismissed Mussolini, which was what the deputies expected him to do. Those who were opposing Mussolini walked out of parliament, in a move called the Aventine succession. They thought that the future of Fascism was out of their hands and destined for deterioration, however the King refused to act, wanting others to take the lead. If the opposition were not so divided and indecisive then Mussolini would surely have been dismissed; there would have been no further consolidation of Fascist power. This proves that the actions of others greatly contributed to the Fascist party staying in power and that Mussolini did not strengthen the party and its place in politics on his own. In fact he could have been responsible for its demise.

Other interpretations of the situation suggest that Mussolini’s stance in the years between 1922 and 1925 was successful in consolidating Fascist power. He was a fantastic public speaker and a very able politician. Many politicians made the mistake of thinking they could control Mussolini. A conservative newspaper of the time stated ‘Once he is in Rome, he will be more subject to influence.’ This would later prove to be a mistake. His early policies of reform and reaction were particularly popular. He was granted emergency powers in November 1922. The vast majority of the country were for this idea even Giolitti gave his backing ‘The Cabinet must be supported.’ At the beginning of his reign Italians were glad that Mussolini was acting decisively and consolidating his power. He invaded Corfu in August 1923 after four of his staff were assassinated in Greece. Although Britain demanded they withdrew later, the episode was regarded as a victory for ‘glorious Fascism’, making Mussolini look powerful and in control. The event was especially popular with the Nationalists who were glad that Italy was asserting herself as a power in Europe unlike the previous Liberal years. This prompted the Nationalists to join forces with the Fascists in announcing the invasion of Corfu as a success, another victory for Mussolini and his party. Their forces combined were more powerful and strengthened the party. He also gained support by dropping tax measures that had previously existed on the elite. Anything he did that gained support can only be seen as a success within the context of his consolidating Fascist power. He also kept the church on his side by conforming to reforms such as banning contraception and having Catholicism taught in schools; all influential in gaining support, but extreme for someone who not too long before was anti-clerical. This shows how far Mussolini was prepared to go in order to consolidate Fascist power.

Mussolini established the Grand Fascist Council in late 1922 / early 1923. It could be interpreted as being set up as a rival cabinet and consisted of only the top Fascists. In some ways it did undermine the Ras, as Mussolini himself was head and it did not require any Ras intervention or assistance. However the formation of the Grand Fascist Council did give Fascism more power as it was challenging parliament and the normal administrative procedures. Since Mussolini was the head of the Fascists, any power that he obtained would relate to the movement and so this was a success in consolidating their power, as it was one more step to a Fascist dictatorship.

Mussolini knew from the start that his minority in parliament would hinder him so he decided to put forward a bill to reform the electoral system. It was known as the Acerbo law and stated that the party that secured the most votes in an election would be given two thirds of the seats if they polled at least one quarter of the votes. It was debated in parliament in July 1923 and passed with a massive majority. As most deputies still feared the Left Mussolini could still count on their support. In the next election the Fascists secured 66% of the vote. This was a massive change to the previous numbers of Fascists in parliament and gave Mussolini the majority he needed to set the ball rolling for the dictatorship. It consolidated Fascist power in parliament as he could command a majority, and along with his emergency powers, it almost gave him complete control of Italy. However Mussolini’s power issue was still unresolved; was he a thug aiming for dictatorship or the saviour of the existing order?

There were many factors that would lead people to support Mussolini and it is fair to say that enough support runs parallel with successful consolidation. The Elite provided essential support for Mussolini. He had them on his side by providing tax loopholes and land reform but they also supported him for other reasons. The ever increasing (though really non-existent) Socialist threat was still evidently worrying to the Elite. One Conservative newspaper said that Mussolini ‘has saved Italy from the Socialist danger.’ He was regarded as a saviour, Giolitti said Mussolini was someone who would give Italy ‘new blood, new energies.’ Even the conservative Prime Minister Winston Churchill supported Mussolini ‘If I were an Italian I would don the Fascist Black Shirt.’ He also said ‘ It was quite absurd to suggest that the Italian government does not stand upon a popular basis.’ He was quite sure that Mussolini was popular. People also supported Mussolini for not being too radical and taking the moderate route. If he had sided with the Ras he would have jeopardised his position, something he certainly did not want to do. He stayed moderate by keeping prefects, being loyal to the King and keeping the same police system. He also gained support by introducing some reform: he ‘vastly improved the public services’, ‘he reduced a superfluously large bureaucracy’ and he gave Italy ‘national security and national self-respect.’ All these improvements compared with the previous Liberal governments’, contribute to why people supported him. This support lead to Italians trusting him more and with their trust he could carry on with his reforms and this enabled him to consolidate power.

The Matteoti crisis was the major point in Mussolini’s rise to dictatorship that would determine the fate of Fascism. Evidence proved that Mussolini was indirectly, if not directly, to blame. However, with the help of individuals who would not mobilise an opposition, such as the King ‘I am not a judge, I should not be told such things’, Mussolini was able to ride out the crisis fundamentally unblemished and with more power. During the crisis the opposing deputies decided to take a stand against Mussolini by walking out of parliament, in a move called the Aventine secession. Instead of losing Mussolini support, this left him in a parliament without any opposition and no one to confront him; exactly what he wanted. His success at combating the Matteoti murder was also largely due to his speech to parliament in 1925. It was long overdue, six months after the crisis and proves how divided Mussolini’s opposition were if they could not mobilise themselves within six months. In his speech, Mussolini took responsibility for Fascism ‘I am the chief of this criminal association’, ‘the responsibility is mine.’ But was careful not to admit to responsibility for the murder of Matteoti. By doing this he took a risk as Parliament could have either attempted to overthrow him or do nothing and give him complete control. As his opposition were so divided, they chose the latter. Mussolini went on to say he would set up the beginnings of a dictatorship ‘within the next 48 hours after this speech.’ This was the ultimate consolidation of Fascist power, as Mussolini was not met with any opposition, only vigorous, prolonged applause. He had rode out the crisis more powerful and with more support and from this strong base, went on to establish the dictatorship by ordering powers so he could pass laws by decree. He would not have been able to do any of this if he had not consolidated Fascist power and gained support first.

It has been suggested that Mussolini’s Fascist dictatorship came to become more of a personal one in the years of consolidation. In many ways it is true that Mussolini manipulated the Fascist party to consolidate his own power but surely any power he gained would assist the Fascist party, of which he was head, to become a dictatorship. By establishing the Grand Fascist Council in 1923 Mussolini was perhaps undermining the ability and credibility of the Ras but it still included Fascists and was rivalling parliament which was what the Ras wanted. In fact Mussolini was prepared to reverse his views for the sake of obtaining power. His programme in 1919 was anticlerical and in favour of taxing large businesses; by 1925 this had been reversed. His ideological aims however remained consistent. He always wanted the rebirth of a glorious Italy and for her to assert herself in Europe. Mussolini proved himself to be pragmatic but not devoid of a Fascist ideology.

After examining the evidence, it is clear that Mussolini was successful in consolidating Fascist power in the years between 1922 and 1925. His first four years were ridden with problems and drawbacks: the divisions within his own party, the ongoing power and pressure of the Ras, the unclear ideology of Fascism for a political agenda and the way that he relied on everyone around him to deliver his power. Despite all these problems, he managed to achieve more successes than failures. He convinced parliament, from the outset, that he was worthy of emergency powers; strengthened the Fascist party by allowing the Nationalists to join them and commanded a majority nationally and in parliament. The over riding factor that would consolidate power and establish a dictatorship was that of the Matteoti crisis. If Mussolini had not had the support he had gained throughout the years, then Fascism would have failed in Italy. It was this, combined with Mussolini’s personal skills as a politician, which allowed him to consolidate Fascist power in 1925.

Lucy Cranshaw