In Europe of the pre-war period, the rise of totalitarian primarily refers to the three states of Germany, Russia and Italy, with their three charismatic, almost deistic figures, Adolf Hitler, Josef Stalin and Benito Mussolini although General Franco’s Spain may be considered a totalitarian, Fascist regime as well. The degree to which the dictators really did turn their state into one that is purely totalitarian is debatable, but on the surface, each possessed the required quality of totalitarian states. As each of the states had a different totalitarian regime with varying degrees of control and severity, most factors for the rise of, and in many cases, the appearance of totalitarianism are different. In order to identify them, it is important to know the background of the states that turned to totalitarian governments and dictators.
Benito Mussolini’s Italy, although it had the façade of a Fascist nation was largely not under his control. Other sources of power, although not a threat to his regime, nevertheless existed, as the monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church were still regarded highly by the majority of the Italian people. Although his aim, as he once said, was “everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state”, Mussolini still did not have much control over the Italians, as can be seen by the various attempts, and final success to assassinate him.
Hitler’s Germany was, in many respects, more organized. Although he never had majority of the votes, the Nazis were very popular with those who wanted Germany’s nationalistic and economic revival. To a large extent, Germany did fulfil the criteria and control needed for a totalitarian state, and this was helped by Hitler’s oratory skills. Josef Goebbels, the Nazi chief propaganda administrator, said in 1933 “ A totalitarian state must pervade all spheres of life.” The Nazis had an extensive terror network with the SS, the SA and the Gestapo, as well as the many concentration and labour camps, and certainly revived the economy, but failed to overcome much religious opposition or nationalize all businesses.
Russia, or the Soviet Union, as it became under Stalin, was possibly the most securely totalitarian states, particularly as it lasted until 1988. The terror network was extensive and highly effective in infiltrating the population, and the armed forces grew to have formidable military strength. Propaganda and education indoctrinated the Communist ideology to youth and other citizens and the nationalisation was almost complete in every aspect.
Many of the conditions and factors that enabled and nurtured the rise of totalitarianism in Europe can be traced back to the end of the First World War. The Treaty of Versailles, inspired much resentment and hate, particularly in Germany as it was stripped of land, national prestige and money. It also created disappointment in Italy and Japan, as they were allied to the victors, and had been disillusioned into thinking that they would benefit considerably, but were left feeling as if they deserved more than the outcome. It was this resentment that Hitler and Mussolini utilized to their advantage to appeal to more people. The Treaty of Versailles also created new countries like Czechoslovakia caused land disputes that marred the peacetime and collective security throughout Europe. The numerous veterans and demilitarised soldiers were often handicapped or traumatised. Many were also unskilled and so created a strain on the national economy and were unable to adjust to society. The flue epidemic of 1918 – 1919 caused many deaths and a general strain on society.
The League of Nations, which was set up to promote international co-operations, also encouraged, is not the rise of totalitarianism, the consolidation of power by the dictators. Not only were they too weak to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, which showed Hitler and other dictators that they need not fear interference of the League, but to some extent, they approved of some dictators, like Hitler as a potential threat to a greater enemy, the USSR.
The European economy was severely damaged by the war and took a long time to revive, especially with the extra burden of paying back loans and reparations. The protectionism and drive towards self-sufficiency that led to the termination of free trade and introduced tariffs on imports. The bad living conditions and economy made more people want a totalitarian regime where the economy was under the control of the state and industry was nationalised.
The end of the “war to end all wars” created a dangerous illusion of peace, which in turn mad people less wary of dictators with a tendency towards aggressive foreign policies and a desire for war.
The introduction of the idea of democracy to many of the formerly autocratic states led to them desiring a parliamentary democracy like Britain. The Weimar Republic is one of many countries that tried democracy without the population being prepared for it. These governments were poorly organized and soon led to people being more attracted to more extreme, radical parties that had the appearance of organisation and the potential to revive the economy and national pride.
The Great Depression caused by the Wall Street Crash of 1929 affected the whole globe, particularly Germany ass it could no longer depend on the loans from the United States to rebuild itself. This led to the abandonment of international co-operation and the focusing on national interests. Many countries went into a policy of isolation and were unable to keep dictators from coming into power, and were not actively interested in the affairs of other countries.
Collective security, International co-operation and democracy had largely failed in Europe, which turned and gave rise to totalitarian governments and aggressive dictators to solve their problems and reinstate their national identity, and go back to the “glory days”. The dictators used the above failures to their advantage to appeal to a wider audience.
