* He didn't trust Facta?
* He didn't trust the army?
* He feared a civil war?
* He feared the fascists would take power anyway, and it was useless resisting?
* He didn't want to abdicate in favour of his cousin, who was sympathetic to fascists?
* He felt he would be better able to control Mussolini inside the government than outside?
How and when was Mussolini able to convert the government into a dictatorship?
Mussolini's weaknesses after he was appointed Prime Minister (1922):
* He did not have a fascist majority in parliament
* The King could always dismiss him and use the army against him
* He had to cooperate with the Liberals, and the Popolari (Catholic party) both in government and parliament.
However, Mussolini strengthened his position by:
* Obtaining posts of Minister of the Interior (control of police), and Foreign affairs.
* Using the squadristi to intimidate his political opponents (including the liberals).
* Playing on the middle classes' fear of the Left (socialists and communists).
Mussolini got open support from the church by banning contraceptives and promising to introduce compulsory religious education in schools.
In July 1923, Mussolini introduced the Acerbo Law. This put an end to the proportional system of the government. It said that the party with 25% of the cotes and had the highest number of seats in parliament would automatically get two-thirds of the seats in parliament. This was a way out of coalition governments.
In April 1924, there were general (legislative) elections in Italy. The fascists got 66% of the votes, and therefore also got 66% of the seats in parliament. Mussolini was being over-cautious with the Acerbo Law. Widespread use of violence by the squadristi helps to explain this result.
The death of Matteotti:
socialist MP, G. Matteotti, gave speeches in parliament denouncing the Fascists' use of violence in the electoral campaign. In June 1924, Matteotti was kidnapped and stabbed to death by Fascist thugs. This quickly became a crisis for Mussolini. Anti-fascist feelings began to spread. The socialists and communists boycotted parliament, hoping the King would decide to dismiss Mussolini. The King did no such thing, while Mussolini initially denied the accusation that it was him that had ordered the assassination. Later, Mussolini was pressured by the Squadristi to set up a dictatorship. Mussolini was in a difficult position.
In December 1924, extreme fascists presented Mussolini with an ultimatum. Mussolini decided to take action:
* Press censorship established
* Political meetings banned
* Political parties banned
* Secret police set up
In January 1925, Mussolini gives a speech to parliament in which he accepts responsibility for the murder of Matteotti, and claims he is proud of it.
The setting up of a personal dictatorship:
Mussolini wanted all the power concentrated into his hands. He created the post of Head of the Government, which was not accountable to parliament, but only to the King. He decided to rule by decrees, thus ending all democratic processes.
Mussolini set up the Fascist General Council (composed of all party members) to approve anything he did.
He started a personality cult (called himself 'Il Duce'), and had newspapers praise him, as well as started to hail himself as the new Caesar, saving Italy from Socialism and Communism. He used slogans such as "Mussolini is always right" to brainwash people.
Threat from Squadristi:
Radical members of the PNF (Fascist party), led by secretary Farinacci, put pressure of Mussolini to carry out a 'Fascist revolution'. Widespread violence between April and October 1925 was used despite the government's orders to calm down. Mussolini intended to use the party as a servant to his needs, not to have his authority challenged. He therefore took certain measures to crush the opponents:
* Replaced Farinacci with a more moderate leader
* He blamed squads and gangs for the violence
* He purged 60'000 PNF members by 1928
* He reorganized local branches of the PNF - local leaders were appointed directly by Rome
Why could Mussolini defeat the radical wing of the PNF?
* The PNF lacked clear ideology
* The PNF was divided into conflicting groups
* Mussolini played one group against another
* The PNF expanded greatly in the 1920's (1.4m members by 1928): new recruits were white collar careerists and opportunists without strong political opinions who joined the party for the advantage that membership helped to obtain jobs.
* The squadristi were therefore an isolated minority
How did Mussolini set up a Fascist State?
* All political opposition banned (using OVRA, secret police)
* Press censorship introduced
* Local power brought under control
* Education controlled by the government, gave good views of Mussolini, and encouraged the denunciation of opponents to the regime
Mussolini's consolidation of power
Relations with the Church: Mussolini signed an agreement with Pius XI, called the Lateran Pact in 1929. The Italian Government:
* Recognized the Vatican State as an independent state
* Made Christian Catholicism the official state religion in Italy
* Promised to introduce compulsory religious education for all students
* Paid a large sum of money to the Pope in compensation for the land he lost in 1870
The Vatican, in return for this, recognized the existence of the Italian State, and therefore bridged the gap between the Church and the Italian government. This is considered as one of Mussolini's most lasting achievements.
The Corporate State: Mussolini made trade unions illegal and introduced Fascist-controlled unions. Mussolini's ambition was to put an end to class struggles and internal division by setting up a 'Corporate State'. By 1936, there were 22 corporations, each composed of both workers and factory owners. Eventual problems were solved peacefully between these two groups. Strikes were made illegal. In compensation for this loss of freedom, workers got free Sundays, paid holidays, free football and concert tickets.
Mussolini's Social Policy
Women: in Mussolini's own words: "Women do not count in our State".
However, women were targeted as child-bearers, were encouraged strongly to marry and have children (future soldiers). Mussolini launched the battle for births in 1927, aiming to increase Italy's population from 40 million to 60 million by 1950.
He did this in a number of ways:
* Loans given to married couples, partially cancelled after each child born
* Women discouraged from working outside the home
* Promotion in civil services only open to married men
* Medals awarded to women with many children
This was, of course, a failure.
Mussolini's Foreign Policy
- "The quiet years" (Quiet pressure of Yugoslavia for Fiume,
- and quiet pressure on Albania to control the country indirectly.)
1935 Abyssinia
1936 Friendship with Nazi Germany
It is difficult to be precise about Mussolini's plans and methods in foreign policy. Despite Mussolini's constant reference to his foreign dreams, he gave no details in his speeches. He insisted his policy was a clean break with the past and very different from the liberal governments before him. This, however, was untrue.
Mussolini was interested in the Balkans, the Mediterranean, and Africa, which had been Italian dreams since the late 19th Century.
It is clear that Mussolini wanted areas that had 'escaped' Italy after WWI, and that he dreamt of a new 'Roman Empire'.
Italy remained in the League of Nations, and signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1928, agreeing to refrain from using war to solve disputes. Mussolini also joined the Stresa Front with Britain and France (1935) to resist any further breach in international agreements with Germany. In exchange for signing the Stresa Front, France and Britain were more lenient on Mussolini's thirst for an African empire.
Abyssinia Crisis 1935-36
Mussolini's aim in getting Abyssinia:
* Personal prestige increased in Italy
* Increase of Italy's prestige abroad
* Economic gains for Italy
* African soldiers join Italian army
Abyssinia was one of the two remaining non-colonized countries in Africa, and bordered two other Italian colonies (Eritrea and Somalia).
From October 1935 to April 1936, Italy brutally attacked Abyssinia using poison gas against civilians. This was very successful, although it was against the laws of the League of Nations.
Consequences:
* Immense popularity for Mussolini at home
* Crisis in relation with Britain and France
* Mussolini driven to closer relations with Germany
The League of Nations condemned Mussolini's actions with weak sanctions. Mussolini seemed shocked and disappointed - clearly he did not expect Britain and France to turn their backs on him.
Friendship with the Germany 1936-WW2
Despite Mussolini's dislike of Hitler, Italy needed a powerful ally to have more weight. The Rome-Berlin Axis was wigned in 1936 (?). Germany supported Italy's expansion in the Mediterranean and the Balkans. Italy supported Germany's expansion in Eastern Europe.
In March 1939, the Pact of Steel with Germany: Italy promised to support Germany in any war at any time. However, Italy was not fully prepared for war. When war broke out in September 1939, Mussolini broke his promise and remained neutral until June 1940 when he joined Hitler, who seemed to be winning. This was Mussolini's downfall...
Historical interpretations of Mussolini's foreign policy
I) Mussolini had no basic principle of foreign policy
He was out to gain prestige for himself and Italy, and expand (Balkans and Africa). He had an opportunistic attitude towards other countries in Europe. Basically, he seized opportunities as they came.
II) Mussolini was Britain's "Lost Ally"
Mussolini tried to be Britain and France's ally, but after the conquest of Abyssinia (1935-6), relations became difficult and cold. As Italy was economically and militarily weak, it needed a powerful ally abroad in order to have weight and achieve gains. Therefore Mussolini turned to Hitler.
III) Mussolini: the traditional Italian
There is no Fascist foreign policy as such. Mussolini simply carried on with his predecessors' priorities of expanding in the Balkans (Mediterranean) and Africa.
IV) Mussolini had domestic problems
Mussolini was a prisoner of Italy's internal problems. Public opinion expected foreign expansion from Mussolini. This was also seen as a way out of economic problems (new market for Italian goods).
