The Necessity For Human-Computer Interaction:
According to Ben Shneiderman of the Department of Computer Science at the University of Maryland, there are factors which drive the concern for human factors including “…the expansion of the user population to include novice and non-technically trained people…[and] the increasing organizational dependence on interactive systems….”[2] Shneiderman also stresses the importance of human factors in emergency-response systems, however his first two factors pertain most to the necessity of increased human-computer interaction for the average user. These factors set the tone for the necessity for increased human-computer interaction. As computers become more widespread in their usage by novices and, also as these systems become implemented more and more in businesses and at home, human factors must be considered. These statements seem a contradiction to the premise of this paper, which is that a simplification of use in operating systems has lead to the increase in use of computers, but one must not be so shortsighted to miss all relevant points. As an increase in any industry occurs, whether it be computer-related or not, there invariably will be a widespread increase in all aspects of the field. Shneiderman’s point is relevant that as popularity increases, so does the effort to refine the product for the user in order to ensure satisfaction and continued usage. Keeping this in mind, though, it must also be taken into account that if certain aspects of the computer, such as the operating system, were not simplified and easy to work with from the beginning, there never would have been the increase in usage enough so that this depth of analysis would have taken place. We are again presented with the “chicken or the egg?” question of operating systems and human-computer interaction, which caused the other? Taking these factors presented in this section, it will again be stressed that without the basis of a simplified to use operating system, computers would not have proliferated to where they are now. An analysis of the history of operating systems is now a reasonable suggestion in order to see how these operating systems progressed from residing mainly in academic institutes and “high-tech” businesses to becoming a part of everyday life.
The Progression of Operating Systems:
“Before there was an operating system, there were computers.”[3] Computer systems were not more than machine language and then assembly language until General Motors Research Laboratories created the first operating system for their IBM[4] 701 that “…generally ran one job at a time and smoothed the transition between jobs to get maximum utilization of the computer system.”[5] Being designed at first primarily for research and technical work, operating systems gradually evolved to speed up this process of job transition. Operating systems moved from single-user states to multi-user in which multiple users could log into the system and not have their presence (their work) be noticed by other users. This was a significant advancement for operating systems, making the systems handle many users while keeping the users separate so that they were not interacting or interfering with each other’s work. The explosion of computing did not occur until the 1980s when IBM introduced its personal computer into the marketplace. The 1980s saw the microprocessor revolution[6] whereby the integral components of the computer such as the CPU, memory, etc. could fit onto a single chip. With this reduction in size also came a reduction in price that meant everyday people could afford computers and not just large corporations and academic institutes. The operating system of choice packaged with these first personal computers (PC’s) of IBM, the IBM 5150 PC Personal Computer is none other than one of the most widely known operating systems in the world today, PC-DOS 1.0 (Microsoft’s MS-DOS)[7]. Operating systems had advanced from “…primarily multimode timesharing systems that supported batch processing, timesharing, and real-time applications…”[8] to PC-DOS, “the first 16-bit microcomputer system.”[9] While many of the smaller and less-known operating systems have developed along the way to the 1980s when Microsoft’s Disk Operating System (MS-DOS), a historical listing will not be presented. Instead, an examination of two of the most significant operating systems, UNIX and MS-DOS will be examined with reference to their levels of human-computer interaction and importance for both academic/research institutions (UNIX) and impact on the home-based personal computer market (DOS).
The Case For UNIX: Design By Programmers, For Programmers:
The operating system UNIX was developed in the early 1970s by Bell Laboratories and grew in significance as it was rewritten in the C language that has increased its portability. Being based on the C language, UNIX can be installed on any computer on which a C compiler can run, making UNIX popular in it’s flexibility of installation among other reasons. “Due to an agreement with the U.S. government, AT&T could not market its quite successful system”[10] and instead gave away the source code of the operating system to universities, to freely develop and experiment with as they saw fit. Because the availability of the source code was at first free and then offered for a small fee, this has lead to many variations on the UNIX system, the most popular being BSD, Berkeley Software Distribution, developed at the University of California at Berkeley, and System V, a commercial version by AT&T. The reason for UNIX’s success is due to its flexibility and power, ease of portability, and free source nature. The reason why UNIX has stayed almost exclusively on the academic and server end of computer is due to “commands [that] are not easily understood by the uninitiated”[11] making the learning curve steep, but in context to the systems available at the time, a significant advance. The benefits were therefore only available for the experienced programmer such as the easy development of software because the programming language C was the basis for the system. Being designed by programmers for programmers, the UNIX shell, or interface, is one tailored towards the experienced user. Requests to the system are issued by strings of commands keyed in by the user; not the more popular GUI interface that “novices…find…more attractive”[12] and is one of the reasons why UNIX’s popularity has not grown on the home market.
“The way information is presented to users influences the way they perceive the system.”[13] One of the principal design issues in any field is the visual aspect that a user first sees the tool they are about to use. “Friendliness” of the GUI interface is what drives the success of current operating systems (January 2000) such as Windows 95/98 and MacOS. First-time computer buyers can easily navigate and communicate with the operating system through a GUI without learning the complex language such a system, as UNIX requires. However, while these factors in UNIX’s design does play a role in it’s acceptance to the home user, UNIX was designed and intended for other programmers, which is where the system succeeds and it’s strength lies. “The strength of UNIX is its portability across multiple vendor hardware platforms, vendor independent networking, and the strength of its application programming interface…These benefits are so strong that the relative weak end-user interface has not slowed the adoption of UNIX.”[14] It is also significant to note that recently (1991), a UNIX-like clone operating system, Linux, has emerged whose popularity is growing on the personal computer marketplace as effective GUI interfaces (X-Windows, for example) and easy to install distributions are making this open source (freely distributable) operating system popular. GUI interfaces, which drive focus primarily on the needs for efficient human-computer interaction, are seen primarily in Windows and MacOS, who dominate the personal computer operating system market.
Personal Computers and GUIs, A Powerful Combination:
Previously stated was the design of an operating system (UNIX) with the experienced user in mind. The main focus of this paper will now be stated, which is how operating systems such as Windows and MacOS with their Graphical User Interface (GUI) approach have ushered in a new era of acceptability of computers. Through the use of a GUI interface the learning curve for computer use has decreased. Design advances such as menu navigation will “reduce training time and errors, because users don’t need to memorize command sequences.”[15] It is the loss of a command interface that has strengthened the GUI type of operating system design, making the casual user of a computer system able to execute easily remembered commands without being going through extensive training, and thus more likely to return to use the system. While the graphical user interface is not a type of operating system, it is a significant advancement of the functionality of the operating system that has aided the increased use of computers by the general public.
The advance from a text-based medium to a predominately graphical interface is a significant step. “Effective human-computer interaction requires the presentation of information so that the eye and brain can see what the presenter intended to be seen.”[16] Our current society thrives on the visual medium and this should be no different for computers and thus operating systems that aim to communicate effectively with the user. Gone are the days of the radio as the primary form of entertainment, being replaced by its visual counterpart, the television. There is no wonder then why the use of images would be preferred over the primarily text-based displays of previous operating systems such as PC-DOS and UNIX. The number of households with computers alone has risen from 8.2 percent of the population of the United States to 36.6 percent of all households[17] showing that the progression of computer proliferation has risen along with the design of operating systems being more user friendly. A copy of the 1997 report detailing the use of computers from the US Census Bureau appears in the appendix because significance which the information presented has concerning the increased use of computers.
Conclusion:
The operating system is the most essential component to making a computer run. The operating system controls all of the basic functions controlling the resources of the system so that this task is not left to the user and he/she can accomplish more work. The most important point about the operating system, however, is that this has eased the human-computer interaction to a level whereby a user no longer even has to think about the fact that he/she is using such a complex piece of equipment. “The operating system permits users to express their requirements in terms meaningful to them, instead of in the language specific to some conglomeration of circuits and registers.”[18] Following the statistics presented by the US Census Bureau (see Appendix), with the trend towards graphical user interfaces becoming the current standard in operating system design, the use of computers has similarly increased. Effective design of the operating system has reached a new standard as the use increases. Not only must the previous factors be taken in to account for operating system design such as effective managing of resources, but the visual attractiveness for the novice user to want to use and comprehend also plays an important role. Designers must now balance these two factors: functionality and presentation for future operating systems. “What makes an [operating system] something that grows on you or something that you learn to loathe is it’s design and attention to detail.”[19] As our society continues to maintain the visual medium as the primary way of transmitting information, the design of operating systems will continue to be visually intensive to cater the predominant market. That is not to say, however, that purists will not remain to use operating systems that are primarily command based and not a GUI. Either way, GUI or not, operating systems provide an invaluable resource for facilitating the easy use of a computer by any level of users. The operating system has made the human-computer interaction easier on the whole by taking away a level of complexity from the user, allowing him/her to focus more on performing the functions that they wish to use the computer for, such as word processing for example. A friendlier and more productive environment in which to work is the result of the operating system, making interacting with the computer a much easier task for users of all skill levels.
References
Baekcer, Ronald M. and William A.S. Buxton (1987): Readings in Human-Computer Interaction: A Multidisciplinary Approach. California : Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc.
Collins, Mark Anthony (1998): Why Windows 95 Is Better Than MacOS. http://www.macopinion.com/columns/macman/win95.html
Deitel, Harvey M. (1990): An Introduction to Operating Systems. New York : Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
IB ITGS Syllabus, May 1997.
Kurzban, Stanley A., Thomas S. Heines, and Anthony P. Sayers (1984): Operating System Principles Second Edition. New York : Van Nostrand Reinold Company.
LaMorte, Christopher (1999): “Computers: History and Development.” Jones Telecommunications & Multimedia Encyclopedia. http://www.digitalcentury.com/encyclo/update/comp_hd.html
Newburger, Eric C (1997): Computer Use in the United States – Population Characteristics. http://www.census.gov/prod/99pubs/p20-522.pdf
Polsson, Ken (1999): Chronology of Events in the History of Microcomputers. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/comphist.htm
Severance, Charles (1999): A Brief History of UNIX. http://www.ocean.odu.edu/ug/unix_history.html
Shneiderman, Ben: “The Future of Interactive Systems and the Emergence of Direct Manipulation.” Human Factors and Interactive Computer Systems. Yannis Vassiliou (ed.). New York : Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Strobel, Stefan; Rainer Maurer; and Stefan Middendorf (1997): Linux Universe: Installation and Configuration, 3rd Edition. Translated by Robert Bash. New York : Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
Weiss, Elaine (1993): Making Computers People-Literate. New York : Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers.
Bibliography
Baekcer, Ronald M., and William A.S. Buxton (1987): Readings in Human-Computer Interaction: A Multidisciplinary Approach. California : Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc.
Barron, D.W. (1971): Computer Operating Systems. London : Chapman and Hall LTD.
Collins, Mark Anthony (1998): Why Windows 95 Is Better Than MacOS. http://www.macopinion.com/columns/macman/win95.html
Comer, Douglas: Operating System Design – The Xinu Approach. New Jersey; Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Deitel, Harvey M. (1990): An Introduction to Operating Systems. New York : Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
IB ITGS Syllabus, May 1997.
Kurzban, Stanley A., Thomas S. Heines, and Anthony P. Sayers (1984): Operating System Principles Second Edition. New York : Van Nostrand Reinold Company.
LaMorte, Christopher (1999): “Computers: History and Development.” Jones Telecommunications & Multimedia Encyclopedia. http://www.digitalcentury.com/encyclo/update/comp_hd.html
McDonald, Nancy H.: “A Multi Media Approach to the User Interface.” Human Factors and Interactive Computer Systems. Yannis Vassiliou (ed.). New York : Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Newburger, Eric C (1997): Computer Use in the United States – Population Characteristics. http://www.census.gov/prod/99pubs/p20-522.pdf
Polsson, Ken (1999): Chronology of Events in the History of Microcomputers. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/comphist.htm
Popov, Eduard V. (1986): Talking with Computers in Natural Language. Germany : Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
Severance, Charles (1999): A Brief History of UNIX. http://www.ocean.odu.edu/ug/unix_history.html
Shneiderman, Ben: “The Future of Interactive Systems and the Emergence of Direct Manipulation.” Human Factors and Interactive Computer Systems. Yannis Vassiliou (ed.). New York : Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Strobel, Stefan; Rainer Maurer; and Stefan Middendorf (1997): Linux Universe: Installation and Configuration, 3rd Edition. Translated by Robert Bash. New York : Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
Weiss, Elaine (1993): Making Computers People-Literate. New York : Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers.
[1] “Appendix 1: Glossary of ITGS Terms,” IB ITGS Syllabus, May 1997. P.80
[2] Shneiderman, Ben: “The Future of Interactive Systems and the Emergence of Direct Manipulation.” Human Factors and Interactive Computer Systems. Yannis Vassiliou (ed.). New York; Ablex Publishing Corporation. P.2-3
[3] Kurzban, Stanley A.; Thomas S. Heines; Anthony P. Sayers (1984): Operating System Principles, Second Edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinold Company. P.2
[4] In reference to the use of IBM, Microsoft, and other copyright names: Proper names are used to distinguish product and to give credit to developers of software or hardware. Many names of products used herein are copyrighted and the absence of reference to a copyright does not imply that the absence of copyrights or trademarks, they are only used in this paper for identification and classification.
[5] Deitel, Harvey M. (1990): An Introduction to Operating Systems. New York. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. P.4
[6] LaMorte, Christopher (1999): “Computers: History and Development.” Jones Telecommunications & Multimedia Encyclopedia. http://www.digitalcentury.com/encyclo/update/comp_hd.html
[7] Polsson, Ken (1999): Chronology of Events in the History of Microcomputers. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/comphist.htm
[8] Deitel: An Introduction to Operating Systems. P.6
[9] Deitel: An Introduction to Operating Systems. P.633
[10] Strobel, Stefan; Rainer Maurer; Stefan Middendorf (1997): Linux Universe: Installation and Configuration, 3rd Edition. Translated by Robert Bash. New York. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. P.6
[11] ITGS Syllabus. P. 88
[12] Deitel: An Introduction to Operating Systems. P.574
[13] Weiss, Elaine (1993): Making Computers People-Literate. New York; Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers. P. 58.
[14] Severance, Charles (1999): A Brief History of UNIX. http://www.ocean.odu.edu/ug/unix_history.html
[15] Weiss, Elaine (1993): Making Computers People-Literate. New York; Jossey-Bass Inc., Publishers. P. 134.
[16] Baekcer, Ronald M.; Buxton, William A.S. (1987): Readings in Human-Computer Interaction: A Multidisciplinary Approach. California; Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc. P. 299.
[17] Newburger, Eric C. (1997): Computer Use in the United States – Population Characteristics. http://www.census.gov/prod/99pubs/p20-522.pdf.
[18] Kurzban, Stanley A.; Thomas S. Heines; Anthony P. Sayers (1984): Operating System Principles, Second Edition. P. 6.
[19] Collins, Mark Anthony (1998): Why Windows 95 Is Better Than MacOS. http://www.macopinion.com/columns/macman/win95.html
