Following in line with this idea, are studies which have concluded that there are over-riding factors which influence children’s behaviors in schools (Strasberger, Derksen, 1996). It has been found that how aggression is depicted in the media and Rewarded Aggression are the primary factors influencing violent behavior in the playground. Rewarded Aggression can be defined as the portrayal of violence in the media as being an acceptable and desirable form of behavior, and one that constitutes praise and admiration for the television characters who are being viewed. Due to their impressionable nature, children take the information they have received from the media and imitate it in their own life, and this can have long-lasting effects on their ability to form relationships and to interact with others. Research has shown that there is also a strong correlation between children who watch high levels of television featuring violent acts and children who display similar behaviors in schools. Furthermore, the research suggests that schoolyard bullying, which is reaching epidemic levels in some societies, is proportionally related to the exposure that the bully has had to media violence.
It is interesting to assess whether the effect of violence in various forms of the media is cross-cultural. Whilst the majority of research and experimental evidence within this paper has been restricted primarily to studies conducted within the United States and Australia, research has been undertaken on this topic in other areas where one would expect the media is less influential in children’s lives. A study conducted at the University of Rajasthan, India (Gupta, 1996) examined the impact of audiovisual media (AVM) on Indian culture and mental health, as a part of the 21st National Annual Conference of Indian Association of Clinical Psychologists. Satellite television programs have become available to a vast majority of population causing transformation in the Indian sociocultural environment. These programs have a permissible attitude towards sex and frequently depict hostility, jealousy and violence. Parents and teachers often report school-going children as developing a sort of addiction to these programs. Repeated observation of aggressive behaviour patterns results in more aggressive urges in children, who tend to develop a conviction that aggressive patterns of behaviour are fully justified. This is especially valid in cases of children and adolescents because of their impressionable age. Adding to the Indian research are arguments and data conducted in Switzerland (Selg, 1991) which are in support of the position that the portrayal of violence and aggression in the media has adverse effects on children and adolescents. Through these findings, we can determine that the response patterns of children subjected to violence in the media are not restricted purely to individual cultures.
Debating whether television is guilty of influencing children to display undesirable behaviour, causes us to examine the social responsibility of this medium, and this is extremely important when attempting to make recommendations to rectify this problem. A conference on "Television as a Social Issue" sponsored by the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI) held in California in 1998, was the first world-wide forum of its kind to examine the social issues related to television, and asked important questions about public policy regarding broadcasting (Oskamp, 1998). The conference brought together the views of several different interest groups: media researchers, television industry representatives, media critics, and public officials involved in regulation of public communication, and whilst opinions varied as to the severity of the effect of the media on children, recommendations were made concerning the importance of a more controlled media for the interests of our youth.
In the interests of a balanced argument, it must be discussed that suggestions have been made which serve to rebut the idea that television, and the media as an institution, has a far greater potential for promoting pro-social values than it does anti-social, and it is here that we can understand the importance of the media as a tool for educational purposes. Proponents of this idea would argue that whilst violence within the media is substantial, it cannot outweigh the positive influence that non-violent media has on children. Examples of this are: intellectual engagement with television programs and films are effective in stimulating neurological responses in children which allow for faster developmental growth; the interactive nature of computer video games enables more advanced hand-to-eye co-ordination levels and; the navigation and technical skills required for internet usage are effective in further expanding co-coordinative and intellectual development in children.
Whilst Australia comparatively has tight policies concerning acceptable levels of violence and anti-social behaviour on television through its Government Agency, the Office of Film and Literature Classification, the unstoppable rise of the internet as a medium is proving difficult to control. The combination of the ease by which information and images can be placed on the Internet and the ease of accessibility of its users, results in a free and unrestricted form of media, which can often promote harmful ideas to children. It has been suggested that government policies need to be updated on a regular basis as a means of finding ways to regulate the Internet, in terms of classification levels for children similar to that of television and films. The development of internet filters, such as Net Nanny and Net-ter must also be researched to examine the role they can play in providing suitable internet resources for children, whilst protecting them from offensive and unnecessarily violent material, which can in turn have adverse effects on their own behaviour and thought patterns.
Just as television content, quality and variety has evolved over the last few decades, so to have other forms of media experienced significant change. Of these new media, among the most markedly different is video games, which are becoming more readily available to young people everywhere. Rapid developments with this technology have resulted in more affordable, realistic and appealing systems and games for consummation by the masses, particularly children and youth (Durkin, 1995).
While there are no doubts the improvements in graphics, unit and game construction have given rise to more realistic game play for participants, some authors also argue that game content is becoming increasingly violent and as such, pose greater potential problems for young users. Cohn (1996), clearly an advocate of social learning theory, predicts that children are at risk of acquiring anti-social, aggressive or violent behaviors through observations made while engaging in video game play.
Parents, politicians and educators have long held concerns surrounding the content and consequences of the various forms of media. While these concerns are thought to be perennial in nature, elicited consistently with the introduction of novel, controversial materials into these media, it is argued that the higher levels of violence and realism characteristic of new video games warrant further research into their effects to quell these emerging fears. Durkin (1995) expands this argument by suggesting that it is the interactive nature of this relatively new form of media which constitutes the best argument for research into it’s effects. The opportunity for more engrossing involvement in this form of media compared to others is surely an impetus for developing the rather limited empirical and theoretical knowledge currently pertaining to it.
The limited research into the effects of video game play on participants has traditionally concentrated on violent aspects of game content. In addition to this potentially negative feature of games, other undesirable traits in this media have been identified by academics. Dietz (1998) suggests that like other media forms, video games impact on children’s identities and the violence and more traditional gender roles that were said to be central to many of the games studied therefore have the potential to be detrimental to the young player’s development of gender roles and perceptions. Specifically, it was found that of the games studied, only 59% contained female characters and of these, 28% depicted women as sex objects. In addition to this somewhat unrealistic and undesirable portrayal of female roles in society, nearly 80% of the games required characters to display aggressive or violent behaviors to progress or ‘survive’ within the game. Nearly half the games required violence specifically directed at others while 21% depicted violence toward females. Finally, it was also pointed out that most of the characters were Anglo in appearance. The limited and somewhat unsavory portrayal of society alone, contained in many of these games may warrant sufficient concern and support for further research into their effects.
Like research into television and earlier forms of media, studies of the effects of video games have often treated the so-called “negative correlates” of engagement. While positive correlates have been hinted at, as will be addressed in this paper, the wealth of study has concentrated on possible detrimental consequences of playing the video games. Durkin (1995) identified four main areas of concern emerging from the literature he reviewed. Although the first three are beyond the scope of this paper, brief mention of the author’s findings should be made.
The first major concern surrounded popular belief that computer games may be addictive. It was concluded that although participation in such games is popular, young people still favour more traditional leisure activities, such as reading and sport. Secondly, widespread fears that time spent playing these games impairs family life and academic performance were also concluded to be largely unfounded, the author stating that with few exceptions, these games constituted only a small part of young people’s lives and are usually held in perspective with other activities. Thirdly, the risk of negative health effects from playing these games was also assessed by review of previous literature. These health effects such as fitness reduction, tendonitis and epileptic seizures enjoyed very minimal empirical support, with Durkin (1995) concluding that apart from reports of minor strains and headaches (as possible with any repetitive activities) healthy, experienced young game players are generally unlikely to suffer from serious health problems.
Alternatively, the final question concerning the ability of computer game play to promote aggression and violence in young people is central to the topic of focus. Brooks (2000) conducted an investigation into the effects of violent video games on young boys. Subjects in the experiment either played video games, watched recorded video game play or simply watched television before completing self report measures and questionnaires relating to emotional affect, aggression, frustration, social realism and character identification. This researcher concluded that short-term increases in measures of aggression post- video game play were related to frustration, while longer-term negative effects of video game engagement may actually be reduced by players’ perceptions of the games being low in social realism and character identification. This study therefore offered some support for the hypothesis that video game play may be related to aggression in children though interestingly highlighted the fact that frustration, rather than violent content may be the underlying mechanism responsible.
Amongst the wealth of research in support of these so-called negative correlates of video game play is a study cited by Durkin (1995), which provided evidence of a “modest relationship” between play in arcades and aggressiveness ratings. Methodological limitations to this study meant the direction of causation could not easily be established and the problem may either be the games played or the social experience of the arcade itself. The implications of such studies should therefore not be overstated and caution taken whenever interpreting results. Even the previous mentioned research had methodological weakness, the findings based solely on self-report measures.
In sharp contrast to these studies that suggest negative implications of video game play is a small body of research that subscribes to the catharsis theory. Durkin (1995) states, “the idea that emotions can be vented by intense experiences may be traced back as far as Aristotle” and according to this principle, engagement in violent video game play may serve as a form of release, thereby reducing the subsequent aggression in the participant. This author refers to anecdotal and empirical (two studies) evidence in support of such a theory though is quick to point out that such research is quite limited and requiring methodological improvements.
While research into such positive correlates of media usage are certainly limited, others have ‘strayed from the mob’ and investigated possible cathartic and beneficial effects of viewing violence in the media. Recent research by Bohart (2001) extended this idea of release through vicarious experience to television viewing. Durkin (1995) earlier pointed out however, while there certainly are similarities between these two media, effects of viewing should not be extrapolated or related from one to the complementary form. There is no doubt that substantial further research into the possible cathartic effects of media viewing are imperative, while studies such as Brooks’ (2000) investigating both forms are strongly encouraged.
Aggressive behaviours in children can be attributed to the high levels of violence found within the audiovisual media, and this has been concluded through numerous research methodologies conducted across many different cultures. One cannot however, make the assumption that causes of anti-social behaviour are limited only to this. Behaviour must be viewed on an individual basis and be assessed according to factors including the child’s pre-disposition to violent behaviour, their physical environment, and the behavioural patterns they have been exposed to in their upbringing. The argument for the media as a primary source of education for children also cannot be denied. To combat the rising levels of violence in children, recommendations include working closely with government agencies to ensure that regulation of audiovisual media is consistent, developing educational programs for teachers and parents, advocating further research, developing an adequate collection of materials and assisting in the design of surveys to further ascertain the impact that media exposure is having on children today.
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