In a similar way to behaviourism, Bandura’s (1924-?) social learning theory also takes in to account environmental factors whilst ignoring mental events. He explains that children can also learn by observation and imitation. He argued that by observing others behaviour or reactions to events, children can then demonstrate their behaviour appropriately. This was demonstrated through an experiment with a Bobo doll, in which an adult attacked the doll by hitting and punching it. The children were divided into three groups and shown a film with differing endings, the first saw the man being praised for his behaviour, the second showed the man being punished and the third showed no consequences. Afterwards the groups were placed in a room with the doll, the children who had witnessed the adult being rewarded behaved more aggressively towards the doll than those who had seen the adult getting punished. He concluded that the children had learned their behaviour through observation alone but does go on to suggest that children are more likely to copy behaviours of children of similar ages and gender.
Furthermore this theory can be applied to television viewing and its influence on violent behavior. However, Huston et al (1981) noted that children who watched educational programmes, received higher academic scores than those who watched cartoons.
Unlike the behaviourist and social learning theories, which believe learning is ‘instructed’, Piaget (1896-1980), devised the theory of constructivism. In a similar way to Rousseau’s (1712-78) romantic discourse, constructivists feel that through experimentation and play, where no rules apply, children can learn about the world.
By adopting a scientific approach, Piaget (1896-1980) used experiments to produce quantitative data to support his theory that children think in different ways to adults. His Stage Theory suggests that children pass through four distinct stages of cognitive development termed sensori motor (0-2 years), pre operational (2-6), concrete operational (6-12) and formal operational (12+). He further explains that these stages are sequential and no one can move onto the next stage until the previous one is completed.
From his experiments he concluded that children are born with schemas and as children explore their world, they restructure their ideas and learn new skills, therefore learning was a process of motivation, assimilation and accommodation.
However, Donaldson (1978) adapted Piaget’s tasks so they were presented to the children as games and to make more ‘human sense’. From her results she concluded that children had a better understanding than Piaget (1896-1980) first believed.
Whilst echoing some of Piaget’s (1896-1980) ideas, Vygotsky (1896-1934) challenged the notion that child development was a universal or natural process but instead argued that children learn within their social and cultural context. Known as the social constructivist theory, he believed that it was through social activities that children acquire cultural ‘tools’ including language and rules. He suggested that development did not happen within the child but rather takes place between the child and others. In turn, he placed great emphasis on adults and peers working together to share their knowledge with younger children.
He concluded that children had potential but it was an adult’s job to uncover and develop it, this is referred to as the Zone of Proximal Development (the gap between what the child is able to do and what they have the potential to do). The support provided by the adult or more knowledgeable other in the ZPD is known as scaffolding. This process involves the adult or peer providing assistance until the learner can gradually take control of the task. This is a technique often used by primary schools in schemes such as ‘buddying’ (when a young child is paired up with an elder peer to provide help, guidance and support), either on their first day at school or joining the school council (Ke312 Video 3).
Whilst theories such as those above provide various beliefs in relation to child development, they also allow us to gain some understanding of how their minds work and develop, I shall now go onto to compare and contrast the extent to which the children are seen as active learners in each of the theories.
From a behaviourist perspective children are passive in their learning. Passive learning is the term often used when a person takes in what they are taught. Behaviourist theories believe that we can shape a child’s behaviour through rewards and punishments.
The course DVD (Video 1 Band 1) allows us to assume that when using applications such as ABA, children do not have much of a say in their learning as they are responding to their environment and what is being asked of them. We see that the adult directs the child by using reinforcement techniques to ‘shape’ his behaviour. Again this demonstrates that the child gives little contribution to their learning process.
Yet this theory is effective in managing children’s behaviour and helping them to learn and develop more appropriate behaviour and is often used in nursery/primary schools or at dentist appointments when a child is provided with a sticker or sweets for good behaviour. I have a young child with learning difficulties who will sometimes get distressed in social situations or he does not want to do a certain task, but whilst I agree this application does help develop appropriate behaviour, I feel that I lean towards more positive encouragement rather than punishment. I have found that if my child achieves something he will more likely repeat it if he is praised, and by ignoring bad behaviour the frequency of it reduces.
Unlike the behaviourist theory, the social learning theory believes that children can be active in the learning process. They suggest that children don’t just react to reinforcement or stimuli, but they interpret and translate it as well. By understanding the major roles that cognition, behaviour and the environment play in development, social learning theorists such as Bandura (1924-?) explain that through observation children can learn how to model their behaviour. This is an important concept and adults must be aware that they should demonstrate appropriate behaviour.
‘Role models’ for children do not have to come in the form of family, teachers or peers. The influence of the mass media on children’s behaviour has also been under great debate. Bandura stated that children who watch violent programmes will often go on to replicate violent and aggressive actions, this was evident in his Bobo doll experiment (Video band 2).
Piaget (1896-1980) echoes the belief that the child plays an active role in their learning through hands on experience. An active learner is said to look out for what they want to understand. His theory demonstrates that children are born with a basic knowledge and learning is not a process of gaining new knowledge, but instead by exploring their environment, children restructure their existing schemas and transfer skills.
His stage theory has been influential in many educational settings, such as Primary School, which must provide an age appropriate curriculum. Teachers can draw upon the 4 stages of development in order to set activities that acknowledge the stage of a child's cognitive development. As the child is an active participant, the adult's only role is to provide suitable materials and activities to promote development.
Vygotsky (1896-1934) also proposes that children play an active role in their learning. However, in contrast to Piaget’s (1896-1980) ideas that development precedes learning, he highlights social learning actually comes before development. He also placed a much greater emphasis on the role that language plays in development, something Piaget (1896-1980) has been criticised for. By recognising the importance of social interaction and language Vygotsky explains that learning is a reciprocal process.
He believed that rather than learning being self directed as Piaget (1896-1980) suggests, a child can achieve more complex tasks when they have help from people, adults or other children, who are more experienced. This was a process witnessed by myself after presenting my youngest son with a new shape sorter, on his own he was unable to manipulate the shapes into the correct spaces, yet after help and instruction from his elder brother he was able to establish a method of getting the shapes to fit in correctly.
By studying these 4 theories, this essay has highlighted a number of factors which influence learning and development, such as social, genetic and environmental factors. Each theory provides us with a better understanding of child development and although they may have differing beliefs there is also some obvious overlap. For example all theories recognise that the environment plays a role in development, albeit to differing degrees. Whilst behaviourist models suggest children are passive, studies conducted by Bandura, Piaget and Vygotsky have all recognised that children are active participants when constructing their own learning. I feel that whilst each theory has been shown to have their own views on development, all children are different. Therefore, it is important to recognise that all theories have something to contribute to the larger picture and no one theory is correct in its assumptions of children’s learning.
‘Children influence what happens to them just as they are influenced by their experiences’ (Oates et al, 2006, pg 7).
Word Count 1970
References
Donaldson (1978, cited in Oates et al, 2006, pg 69)
Huston et al (1981, cited in Oates et al, 2006, pg62)
Oates J., Sheehy, K., Wood, C., (2006) ‘Theories of Development’ in Oates, J., Wood, C., Grayson, A (2006) ‘Psychological Development and early Childhood’, Oxford, Blackwell/ The Open University
Oates, J., Wood, C., Grayson, A., (2006) ‘Psychological Development and Early Childhood’ Oxford, Blackwell/ The Open University
Open University (2006) ED209, Child Development, Video Band 1: ‘Children Learning’, The Open University
Open University (2006) ED209, Child Development, Video Band 2: ‘Zero to Hero’, The Open University
Open University (2008) KE312, Working together for children, DVD Video 3, Terrace Road School, Swansea, ‘Relationships’, The Open University
Watson (1924, cited in Oates et al, 2006 pp52/53)
Woodhead, M. (2006) ‘Children and development’ in Oates, J., Wood, C., Grayson, A (2006) ‘Psychological Development and early Childhood’, Oxford, Blackwell/ The Open University