A level Project, Personal Exercise Program on Netball.
Zoë Michelle Wiles
Candidate number: 2922
A project to improve the performance of a netballer.
Section A – Abstract
The aim of the project was to look at a performer, identify their major weakness through observation and to improve the performance of a netball player by improving this major weakness which was shown to be the component of power.
My hypothesis was that the use of a progressive weight training programme improved the power of a netball player. As a result of the training programme the player avoided more interceptions and passed the ball for longer, more accurate distances in competitive match situations.
The performer carried out a six week training program particularly focussing on Quadricep and Hamstring work and Bicep/Tricep work using resistance machines, stretches, based on research theories taking into account personal needs of the performer by looking at power with the inclusion of multiple fitness tests.
The test results before and after the exercise program show if the weakness had been improved. The results showed an improvement in passing by 15% and intercepting by 68%.
As a result of the findings, the research hypothesis was accepted as possibly there was an improvement in the appropriate energy systems which resulted in skeletal muscular hypertrophy and therefore increased the performer’s power and their overall game situation.
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B1. PLANNING
Section C.1 – Observation and Analysis
Quantitative Data Sheet for the Core Skills in Netball.
Practice
Quantitative Data Sheet for the Core Skills in Netball.
Competition
Qualitative Data Sheet for the Core Skills in Netball. Practice
Qualitative Data Sheet for the Core Skills in Netball. Competition
Section C.2 – Observation and Analysis
Major Faults Identified In Competition.
Generally, the performer had an overall weaker game during the competition situation. One of the most noticeable issues was that the performance seemed less relaxed compared to the training session. Facial expressions were a key indication that the performer wasn’t in control and wasn’t processing the movement of the game. Their eyes were noticeably unfocussed and this affected the way in which they perceived situations. If the player lacks concentration then their athletic abilities will not be effectively or efficiently applied to the task. This was easy to identify when the performer received the ball. Their attention narrowing focussed on a small number of stimuli and the demand for concentration varied throughout the game. Their reaction time was marginally slower than in practice due to the pace of the game therefore resulting in passes to be intercepted. This major fault seems to stem from a psychological effect of anxiety during competition. The performer’s cognitive and somatic symptoms seem to have caused their level of relaxation during the competition.
Another major fault within the performer’s competition was their speed. The pace of the game was fairly quick due to the opposing team’s standard. Speed was an issue in many variables of the match. One particular fault was the performer had some difficulty in losing the defender. They made attempts at dodging however the defender managed to keep up the pace. Another factor the performer’s speed affected was their sprints for the ball when receiving a pass. The team player had thrown the ball however the performer wasn’t on target for the ball when they began their sprint which meant they lost possession. This lack of speed during the sprint could be due to a physiological lack of power in the muscles. This deficiency of speed has a major effect upon the performer’s ability to perform during the game. The performer’s lack of speed can affect the number of passes that are successful or unsuccessful. The opposite team could identify a weakness in the teams speed and therefore easily intercept the ball or create particular game strategies around the weakness. The performer seems to have a psychological weakness of anxiety. It is noticeable during pre competition they suffer many somatic symptoms of anxiety. This is then transferred into their game as they try to pass the ball without stopping to look for advantages in the teams’ position.
Major Faults Identified In Demonstration.
The performer during training seemed more confident within their game however their awareness of the game itself, other team members and potential passes weren’t taken as seriously as one would have hoped. Although in training there is room for error, attitude towards the skills should still be practiced as if in competition. Decisions on whom to pass the ball to were fairly obvious however the best option wasn’t always chosen. This too was apparent in the competition situation. The performer’s ability to spot potential strategies of moving the ball across the court were weak and so the simplest passes were made so to avoid any misconduct. The performer’s awareness of the game in training will affect overall motivational levels of the performer and their team as losing possession would be inevitable.
A skill fault effecting the performer’s ability to achieve is their passes moreover their lack of power in their chest pass. The chest passes made were predominantly unsuccessful as the performer misjudged the distance the ball needed to travel, the speed it which they needed to throw the ball and the height required to evenly place it into the team members hands. This lack of power could be due to the incorrect technical ability of the performer as their positioning of their arms and elbows inline with their body, altering the leverage of the push would ultimately affect the power of the pass.
Section D.1 – Evaluation
My performer
I will now discuss the quality of my performer in relation to an elite performer and a weaker performer. My performer puts a lot of effort in when playing in a match. The coaching available has enabled her to develop her own understanding of the game and the game in a competition manner through the use of tactics and passing formations. My performer’s strengths lie in her shoulder passes. These passes can be directed to the ...
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Section D.1 – Evaluation
My performer
I will now discuss the quality of my performer in relation to an elite performer and a weaker performer. My performer puts a lot of effort in when playing in a match. The coaching available has enabled her to develop her own understanding of the game and the game in a competition manner through the use of tactics and passing formations. My performer’s strengths lie in her shoulder passes. These passes can be directed to the chosen player with great use of height, if necessary and great power which is consistently on target. These passes allow further distances to be covered over the pitch. Another strength my performer has acquired is their ability to intercept. This ability to intercept has been acquired through the use of marker the player. My performer does this by standing side on to the opposite teams’ player and makes sure they stay the alleged one meter away so as not to cause obstruction upon the player. This use of marking allows the player to intercept with a greater use of the positioning of the ball in relation to the marked player. A more psychological strength my performer has acquired is that of motivation for the game itself. This can be identified by their use of aggression through verbal communication. Alongside my performer’s advantages, they also have a few weaknesses to contrast. One major weakness is their ability to dodge opposing players. When trying to get away from the defender, my performer lacks speed which is why the defender can keep in toe with them. Along with this, the performer has a weak chest pass. Differing from the shoulder pass, their chest pass lacks speed and power due to the performer’s technique. These weaknesses could be improved by training the fitness component power. Training this specific fitness component will improve their dodging performance by developing their speed, thus affecting their agility.
Weaker performer
The weaker performer I have chosen to analyse plays for a local school netball team and has more noticeable weaknesses than my performer. Although they play different positions, alike my performer, they have a weakness for dodging the defender to make themselves available for passes. Comparing this to my performer, they tend to have a slower reaction time when the ball is passed. They can premeditate the tactics of their team but not fully see the whole ideas of their team members. To improve this weakness, the performer would have to practice specific skills to improve their agility and reaction speed which compared to my performer is fairly similar. The performer committed an increased number of footwork offences compared to my performer. The weight dominated the front toes excessively with one foot flat on the ground and the other with the heel pointing upwards and slightly to the side. Compared to my performer, this has a more weakening effect on the game. The legs were situated a wide distance apart and therefore caused the performer to sometimes lose balance. The right foot was placed to the ground as the dominant foot and then the toes of the left foot were placed on the ground. The performer occasionally switched between feet as the dominant foot which could have also resulted in the umpire calling up footwork offences. Compared to my performer, this shows the level of skill the performer has and therefore identifies the lack of progression and development of the sport. These weaknesses resulted in the opposition gaining the ball either through penalty passes or shots or through interception.
Stronger performer
The stronger performer I have chosen to analyse plays for a County team and compared to my performer shows a much higher level of ability and passion to the game. The quality of coaching facilities available to them is of a higher standard than both the weaker performer and my performer. This includes the quality of the netball posts and nets, the amount of netball match balls available and the space that they use to train in. Compared to my performer, they have better equipment which could result in better forms of coaching and training. This socio-cultural factor may have a big influence on motivation levels. Generally, the pace of game within this level of competition is quicker and therefore the players are more alert. This increased level of speed, in comparison to my performer, shows that the athletes in the team have to train harder and longer to achieve the results they do and therefore enables the opposition to be physiologically challenged. The elite performer’s fitness level is also of a much better standard due to the amount of training sessions the team hosts a week. Compared to my performer, this benefits the team as they have a greater level of cohesion (2). This increase of training sessions compared with my performer allows the skills and game tactics to be developed more widely. Technically, the stronger performer is at a close range to the technical model and therefore performs the skills consistently. Juxtaposing from my performer, they seem to be able to handle the pressure of competition with more ease and therefore has a better ability to play in game situations. The stronger performer is more experienced within the competition element and therefore has a greater understanding of the game itself. Compared to my performer, they have more advantages when it comes to matches as they can anticipate what the opposing team may do. Watching the stronger performer play, it is noticeable that game tactics, such as set plays are more advanced. They involve the most efficient way of making the ball travel its quickest and most successful way over the court.
Section D.2 – Evaluation
The most obvious physiological factor that is affecting my performer’s ability in their game is a lack of power. This lack of power is due to the anaerobic system and the stresses upon this. When the performer is making a chest pass, they lack power from their arms. They bend their arms at the elbow with their arms out to the side. This causes more friction as the ball travels from the chest to the extension of the arms and therefore there is a decreased amount of velocity. At the beginning of each quarter, the performer has more energy as they are working at a high pace but as the game develops, the high pace seems to take a toll on the performer and so begins to slow down. The performer appears fatigued and therefore will lack distance. Another issue that arose was their lack of power in their shoulder pass. The extension from the shoulder is weak and therefore shows a lack of power from the triceps. The point of release was high above their head but due to the lack of power in the arms, this inevitably caused the ball to fall short of the desired target. The weakness of power could be caused by the energy systems. The food source could be typically beneficial if carbohydrates were eaten before competition.
The psychological factor that seems to be affecting my performer’s game is the issue of anxiety. Anxiety is a state characterized by , , , and components (Seligman, Walker & Rosenhan, 2001). These components combine to create the feelings that we typically recognize as , , or . Anxiety is often accompanied by physical sensations such as , , , or . The cognitive component entails expectation of a diffuse and uncertain danger. Externally, somatic signs of anxiety may include pale skin, sweating, trembling, and the pupils dilate. Emotionally, anxiety causes a sense of dread or panic and physically causes nausea, and chills. My performer’s (2) Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) score was 24 with the maximum being 30. This shows that in competition, my performer has a fairly high state of anxiety and a low self efficiency would be present. The cognitive anxiety showed a result of perceptual narrowing which makes the performers spatial attention to shift. Instead of looking at the full picture, of every available pass, every possible opportunity to gain an advantage for the team, peripheral cues closer to the performer generated a stronger effect when they were perceived at a different perceptual depth. The easiest option was chosen instead of pausing and thinking about future opportunities. The somatic anxieties, which could be defined as a physiological aspect, would be identified, the majority as muscle tension predominantly in the quadriceps and hamstrings. This sign of anxiety was obvious through slow movement of the legs during warm up practices. The increased number of stretches also was a clear sign of muscle tension. The performer tended to clutch their legs so to relive tension. Once the warm up had concluded, the mobility seemed to be increased. The tension was identifiable due to facial expressions of the performer. They appeared to not be relaxed in the game and therefore affecting their performance. Previous injury may result as a somatic anxiety symptom. The performer was clearly favouring the left leg and it was obvious they weren’t putting in full effort with particular movements. This injury is psychological not just physical as they were thinking about how the injury could effect the game and how it could cause a level of discomfort. This discourages the performer into not putting full effort into the game. This could be a subconscious choice which could cause worry throughout the game.
The socio-cultural factors affecting the performer’s weakness could be due to the level of coaching available to the team. Compared with the stronger performer, my performer doesn’t train as often and therefore doesn’t congregate with the whole team on a regular basis. The level of knowledge the coach has acquired isn’t of the same standard and therefore creates weaknesses in game tactics and strategies. The equipment isn’t kept in good condition. Balls have deflated and therefore do not have the same level of aerodynamics. If the club had more funding, they could use money to make the coaches more knowledgeable on factors such as dietary needs and also aim to help injured players receive the physiotherapy they need.
Section D.3 – Evaluation
Section E – Review of Literature(2)
Observing my performer, I have analysed their performance and concluded that their major weakness lies within their power. I am going to write a personal exercise program for the duration of six weeks to improve this weakness. The forms of training I could use are fartlek training, resistance training, plyometrics and circuits. I will produce a program based around resistance training for the gym by using the F.I.T.T formula and the principles of training.
F.I.T.T principle
The FITT principle is used to guide the development of fitness plans that cater for an individual's specific needs.
Following any form of fitness training, the body goes through a process of rebuild and repair to replenish its energy reserves consumed by the exercise. The frequency of exercise is a balance between providing just enough stress for the body to adapt to and allowing enough time for healing and adaptation to occur. The frequency of is dependent upon the particular individual and format of the program. A program that works every body part every session should be completed 3-4 days a week with a day's rest between sessions so to allow recovery. Intensity defines the amount of effort that should be invested in a training program or any one session. Like frequency, there must be a balance between finding enough intensity to overload the body (so it can adapt) but not so much that it causes overtraining. For resistance training, workload is the primary measure of intensity. Workload can have three components:
1. The amount of weight lifted during an exercise
2. The number of repetitions completed for a particular exercise
3. The length of time to complete all exercises in a set or total training session
So, you can increase workload by lifting heavier weights, or you could increase the number of repetitions with the same weight. Finally, you could lift the same weight for the same number of repetitions but decrease the rest time between sets. The third component in the FITT principle dictates what type or kind of exercise you should choose to achieve the appropriate training response. The best form of exercise to stress the neuromuscular system is resistance training. But resistance training does not necessarily mean lifting weights. A session that only incorporates bodyweight exercises could be used as an alternative. The final component in the FITT principle of training is time - or how long you should be exercising for. The common duration of resistance training session is no longer than 45-60 minutes. Intensity has a say and particularly grueling strength sessions may last as little as 20 - 30 minutes.
The principles of training are a vital part of training techniques.
Overload is the principle in which the performer increases their training regime by maximising their bearing weight loads. Each week my performer will be increasing the weight load therefore overloading.
Progression is closely related to overload. It means increasing the overload over a period of time-not all at once. This will be apparent to my performer by increasing the intensity, duration and frequency of the exercises.
Individual differences uses the idea that optimal benefits are achieved by devising training programmes to suit the specific needs of an individual. The exercises are tailored to meet the requirements of the individual, and would minimize the risk of overtraining and overuse injuries.
If regular exercise ceases, the ranges of movement will decline over time and the training effect will stop. Athletes must ensure that they continue training throughout to avoid reversibility.
The specificity principle simply states that training must go from highly general training to highly specific training. The principle of specificity also implies that to become better at a particular exercise or skill, you must perform that exercise or skill. Netball should be practiced on the netball court to be specific.
Variation is the principle that adds an array of activities to the training process. If training programmes are repetitious, athletes can soon become bored and lose their motivation.
Adaptation is the way the body responds to the training programme. The parts of the body that are active stressed during exercise adapt to those stresses, leading to an increase in performance.
Energy systems (2)
Netball is a sport that consists of many different passing techniques and other skills to effectively move the ball across the court. The different skills and techniques have different energy demands on the body.
When performing exercise the body requires energy to function. This energy is supplied by taking in fuel in the form of food. Breaking down food releases chemical energy which is stored in the body’s cells as a high energy compound called Adenosine-triphospate or ATP. ATP is needed to supply energy for muscular contractions. Energy is released by the breakdown of ATP which must then be re-synthesised so that the process can start again. This is due to ATP not being stored in large amount in skeletal muscles, meaning that it has to be continually made in order for our muscles to continue contracting.
There are three energy systems in the human body which produce ATP and energy demands will vary according to the type of activity the body is undergoing. These systems are:
- The ATP-PC system
- The Glycolytic system
- The Oxidative system
(7) “The ATP-PC system is for high intensity short bursts; the anaerobic glycolysis system for intermediate bursts of quite high intensity (this system produces the by-products of lactate ions and hydrogen ions, commonly known as lactic acid); and finally, there is the aerobic system for long efforts of low to moderate intensity.” Raphael Brandon. The energy system that creates ATP the quickest is the ATP-PC system. The body stores an energy rich compound in the muscles called phosphocreatine (PC). “In activity lasting longer than about 2 seconds, the resynthesis of ATP relies on a substance called phosphocreatine (PC), which is also stored in our muscles” University of Sheffield PE Department. This is broken down and the free phosphate joins with Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) to form ATP. Due to the limited amount of PC in the muscle, it can only be used for short bursts of rapid high intensity contractions, such as sprinting or jumping. These contractions can only last for about 10 seconds due to the limited store of PC. With regard to netball the ATP-PC system is used during the explosive chest passes made to team mates and in the interceptions. (6) “The factor that determines which group a fibre type falls into is that of ATP metabolism. Whether a fibre is slow or fast twitch depends on how rapidly it oxidises ATP.”
The Glycolytic system is also known as anaerobic glycolysis, which literally means the breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen. This system is more complex than the ATP-PC system and so takes longer to use ATP for energy. A limitation of this system is the accumulation of lactic acid. Lactic acid is a bi-product of glycolysis and can cause fatigue. The body uses the Glycolytic system to supply energy for bouts of exercise lasting around 2-3 minutes. Most netball players will mainly rely on this energy system to supply the majority of their energy during a match. This means that netballers often acquire large amounts of lactic acid. Maximising performance in netball requires overload training that results in high levels of lactic acid being produced. Physiological adaptations result in a greater tolerance to these high lactic acid levels. Training this system involves repeated bouts of high intensity exercise for up to 60 seconds, with only short recovery periods in between. As using the anaerobic system rapidly uses up the glycogen stores in muscle tissue, one of the initial adaptations that results from repeated bouts of anaerobic exercise is an increase in the amount of glycogen stored in the muscle and an increase in the enzymes that break down glycogen to produce glucose . This means glycolysis can take place more quickly and the glycogen stores can be used more efficiently.
After the Glycolytic system the oxidative system is used to supply ATP. The oxidative system involves breaking down ATP with the aid of oxygen. The oxidative system uses glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain to produce 38-39 ATP molecules. Any exercise lasting longer than 2-3 minutes has its energy supplied mainly from the oxidative system. Training the oxidative system would involve sustained periods of low intensity continuous training. Many of the adaptations to aerobic activity result in a more efficient delivery of oxygen to the muscle fibres, so that the power output of the exercise can increase and performance can improve. However, there are drawbacks to a training regime that contains no high intensity exercise. It actually reduces the amount of ATP and PC stored in the muscle, and lowers the tolerance to lactic acid. This would mean a netballer only doing low intensity training would not have an explosive chest pass or be very good when needing to sprint i.e. at to intercept the ball.
Different activities will require different energy systems although the three energy systems used by the body do not work in isolation. All three energy systems are always working to supply the body with energy and during different intensities and durations of exercise the relevant energy system is recruited to supply the largest percent of the energy.
Adaptations to training
Using the information above I will produce a training program to enhance the performer’s use of power. Once the performer has completed the 6 week program, it could be generalised that the muscles within the performer’s body, if stressed enough, muscular hypertrophy will have taken place. (9) The training will have also altered the level of ATP-PC regeneration. The game of netball is mainly anaerobic and therefore needs to be based around the correct energy systems. Doing this will increase performance levels in training and in competition. The greater the intensity of work done in the 6 week exercise program the better we can achieve prior to the point when we begin to accumulate lactic acid and the faster sustained pace we can tolerate. The limiting adaptations are the capillary density, fatty acid breakdown enzyme level and mitochondria density in the specific skeletal muscles used. These adaptations will improve the performer’s ability to pass the ball quicker, throw the ball further, make quicker interceptions and provide a more successful performance.
Section F – Method.
Research Hypothesis
The use of a progressive weight training programme improved the power of a netball player. As a result of the training programme the player will avoid more interceptions and pass the ball for longer distances in competitive match situations.
Null Hypothesis
The use of a progressive weight training programme had no effect upon improving the power of a netball player. As a result of the training programme the player will not improve their number of interceptions achieved and pass the ball for longer distances in competitive match situations.
My overall aim was to set up a good personal exercise program. I aimed to make the personal exercise program so the performer completed the program having improved the component of fitness of power. I aimed to improve their power through a number of exercises which they completed each week. Having improved their power, their game of netball should have been improved as their arm strength and their leg strength should be more powerful. This results in the ball being passed quicker and further through the air.
I devised a 6 week program for the performer to undertake. This consisted of them going to the gym for an ideal 2-3 times a week leaving time, specifically a day in between each training day, for recovery. Progression and Overload allowed an ensured increase in the component of power.
I decided to include the use of resistance machines in the 6 week program. Many machines use a stack of weight as a means of resistance. By the use of cams, cables, gears and pulleys, the resistance from the weight stack can be controlled by one specific movement. Still other machines may require giant springs or rubber bands to provide resistance, which may be less capable of gradual increases in resistance. Some rather large multi-station weight machines allow a variety of exercises for a full body workout. The likelihood of injury is less because most of the machines guide your motions so controlling the weight is much easier. Machines also help maintain good form and posture and protect the lower back. The number one factor in any strength-training program is safety! Machines are not usually as intimidating as free weights. It is much easier to insert a pin in a stack than to put weights on a barbell. Little skill is required and machines are highly suitable for special populations, including the elderly. Machines allow you to focus on a single muscle group through a full range of motion for effective training. Machines can be designed to provide resistance to body movements that are difficult to train with free weights (e.g., multi-hip machines). However, each machine has only a limited number of functions. Each maneuver takes place on only one plane and therefore is not very life-like or sport specific. Machines are very hard to store. Unlike free weights, you cannot put machines in the closet or under the bed. Machines are designed for the average size person. Seat height can often be adjusted, but usually little can be done for differences in arm and leg lengths of the taller or shorter than average person.
(1) Resistance machines are safer to use than the free weights due to the overall strength of the muscles. The equipment available in the gym means that resistance machines will give a wide range of exercises available and so can make the program as sport specific as possible. Free weights utilise the muscles more than resistance machines do but it allows control and assistance of the stack if needed when working through the repetitions. With relevance to the aims, resistance training will allow the program to be very sport similar as the machines available imitate actions within the sport such as the chest press imitates the chest pass and so ultimately will help to improve the strength in the pass which will allow the passes made to become more direct to the player and will be able to travel a much further distance. This form of training will hopefully improve skill development as the fitness component of power is of a medium to heavy load and so will put a considerable amount of stress upon the muscles being used. Resistance machines will allow the performer to alter the amount of weight whenever it is necessary which will allow maximum output to be made following the 80%-90% power F.I.T.T Formula. Resistance machines are easy to use and will be much more useful in the time periods that will be available.
(1) (10) The performer carried out fitness tests to show pre and post exercise program muscular abilities. Athletes use fitness tests to monitor the progress of their condition. A fitness test motivates the performer to start and continue exercising. You can compare the results of a fitness test to own prior results or to a set of norms i.e. the results of a reference population. A set of norms commonly categorizes results according to age and gender. As the availability of these norms is uncommon, I restricted my performer to comparing their pre and post test results to see if there was an improvement. I made my performer conduct a grip dynamometer test. This involves Using a hand grip dynamometer to measure grip strength Record the maximum reading (kg) from three attempts using the dominant hand. Reliability would depend upon how strict the test is conducted and the individual's level of motivation to perform the test. There are published tables to relate results to potential level of fitness and the correlation is high. My performer also carried out a 30 meter sprint fitness test. This consisted of running 30 meters with a 5 meter acceleration distance before. The sprints are timed and then an average sprint is found using all attempts. Reliability would depend upon how strict the test is conducted and the individual's level of motivation to perform the test. There are published tables to relate results to potential level of fitness. I made my performer carry out a sergeant jump. This involves the athlete holding a piece of chalk or chalking their fingers. Standing side on to the wall, reaching up as high as they can, makes a mark on the wall keeping both feet flat on the ground. Then they jump as high as they can and mark the wall with the chalk/their finger. The distance between each mark is the given distance jumped. Reliability would depend upon how strict the test is conducted and the individual's level of motivation to perform the test. There are published tables to relate results to potential level of fitness and the correlation is high. My performer also carried out a standing broad jump test. This consisted of the athlete standing against a marked line, feet as close to the line as possible. The performer then crouches, leans forward, swung their arms backwards and jumped horizontally as far as possible with both feet. The distance jumped is then the final result. All these fitness tests were done before and after the six week exercise program to allow comparison between each test attempt to be made.
Warm up routine
5 minutes pulse raiser to get blood pumping round the body and muscles.
5 minutes static stretches to gain maximum movement from muscles starting from head finish at the feet.
5 minutes jogging doing light joint movement I.E. open the gate-close the gate to stretch hip flexor and hip joint. These joint movements should be performed carefully and to the correct skill. It may not be suitable to perform these exercises as a considerable amount of space will be required.
Cool down routine
5 to 10 minutes jogging/walking - decrease body temperature and remove waste products from the working muscles, including 5 to 10 minutes - decrease body temperature, remove waste products from the working muscles and to increase range of movement also including 5-10 minutes of dynamic stretches for example lunges open and close the gate and scraping the wall.
Outline of specific training methods and techniques
Section G 1
Pre training
Post training
Fitness tests results (PEP)
Evaluation of testing methods
The retest results of the fitness components varied in degree of success. Overall, my pre-test results were of a higher standard than my post-test results due to many reasons. One condition that may have affected my post test results was the weather conditions. The pre-test tests were performed in September/October where the weather was of more reasonable conditions. The use of the sports hall was unavailable. This could have made the 30 meter sprint more reliable and effective. The cold wet Astroturf made the ground more slippery and so was more cautious during the sprints. Another factor that could have made the test more reliable would be to use electronic gating systems as this would give an instant more reliable result as the human response can effect the finishing time. For the grip dynamometer testing, my right hand pre-test and post-test results were the same however my left hand post-test result had deteriorated compared with the pre-test. My left hand result should technically be stronger as I am left handed and so dominate in that hand. Reasons for the deterioration in the left hand post result could have been due to tiredness or other physiological effects. The Back dynamometer result also deteriorated compared with the pre-test result. This may be due to back positioning and the degree of the angle. The length of chain was an important factor and could alter the reliability and so change the effectiveness of the results. For the sergeant jump my post-test result increased by 4 centimetres. The sergeant jump has a basic method of jumping up as high as possible and marking the board with chalk. The reliability of this method is that the board may have previous chalk marks of other students and so sometimes is unclear of the exact placement of your chalk marking. Issues that could bias the effectiveness of the test are reasons such as clothing and overall body weight. Depending on your body weight can affect the height you jump. A heavier person has to lift more body weight than a person of a much lighter weight and things such as bone densities can contribute to this. The standing broad jump post-test had an increase on the pre-test of 6 centimetres. The reliability of this test is based on the accuracy of the measurements taken. The use of a meter ruler isn’t the most reliable piece of equipment suitable for the measuring. Overall, the effectiveness of the tests highly depends upon their reliability but this can be affected in many ways. Environmental factors such as weather conditions can affect the overall results. The space in which the results are carried out can also have specific effects on the outcomes. These must all be kept the same when carrying out the tests for the second time or it could produce an unreliable set of results that will not correspond to the first set of tests. If the tests aren’t reliable then it does not give a true indication to whether improvement through the PEP has worked.
Percentage Charts for each Skill.
The data for this section is ordinal.
Dodging
The performer managed to increase the number of successful dodges even though this wasn’t a main aim of the personal exercise program. By making more successful dodges, the performer was able to create more free space to be able to receive passes from other team members. This was beneficial to the performer as they were able to lose the defender and put set plays into the game. This could show that their power in their legs has increased. The exercise program contained resistance machines which could have aided the power in their legs and ultimately causing them to have better agility and ability to move at a quicker rate. The increase of 7% of successful dodges shows that a physiological development has occurred as a result of the exercise program.
Footwork
The performer improved their amount of footwork penalties slightly which meant they weren’t giving the ball to the opposite team freely due to foot misplacement. This was game specific as each netball match is different and therefore circumstances such as the ability of the opposing game and environmental factors altered the game play and could have had an effect on the number of times they committed a footwork offence. However, by completing the exercise program, the performer may have increased their ability in their game therefore making less footwork penalties due to hypertrophy of the skeletal muscles. By improving weaknesses of their game in other areas may have resulted in their footwork offences to be reduced either through a physiological element or psychological element.
Intercepting
The performer made a considerable change to their successful percentage in their interceptions which was more than expected. Their new improved ability to intercept has meant that they have gained possession for their team on a more regular basis rather than letting the opposing team keep or gain overall possession. This improvement in intercepting could have been improved due to the improvement in power and inevitably speed. This could show that their speed has increased. The exercise program contained resistance machines which could have aided the power in their legs and arms, ultimately causing them to have better agility, gain heights in jumps for the ball and ability to move at a quicker rate. The increase of 68% of successful interceptions shows that there could possibly be physiological hypertrophy as a result of the training program and sport specific training sessions.
Passing
The performer’s ability to create a desired chest or shoulder pass has increased in skill level. When the passes are now made, they are more accurate both in height and in distance. This could show that power in the performers arms have increased. This was beneficial to the performer as their team members could rely on accurate passing to and from the performer. The increase of 15% of successful passes shows that a physiological development has occurred as a result of the exercise program.
Pivoting
The performer also managed to improve their ability to pivot once they had caught the ball. The transfer of weight from the ball of their foot to the toes meant it became easier for them to rotate around a certain point and therefore give their team members time to become free of the defenders. This may have been a result of the exercise program as the power in their Quadriceps, Hamstrings and Gastrocnemius and therefore be able to switch the centre of gravity from the ball of the foot to the toes in order to keep balance and allow a better point of rotation. This could have also be due to training practices over the weeks with the aid of the coach.
Section H – Discussion/conclusion
Strengths of the method
A strength of my program was the fact that fitness tests were involved. By comparing results to successful athletes, you can see the areas which need improvement, and the training program can be modified accordingly. This way valuable training time can be used more efficiently. The use of fitness testing allowed identification to whether the component of power was improved or not. (8) The fitness testing showed that before the six week program, the performer’s power was considerably low. It also allowed comparisons of before and after the training sessions so that a common denominator could be present. The initial testing session can give the athlete an idea of where their fitness levels are at the start of a program, so that future testing can be compared to this and any changes can be noted. The testing showed that the six week program improved the performer’s power juxtaposing the testing before the six week training program. By repeating tests at regular intervals, you can get an idea of the effectiveness of the training program.
I think the application of the principles of training was also a strength to the program. Variation is the principle that adds an array of activities to the training process. If training programmes are repetitious, athletes can soon become bored and lose their motivation. Variation allowed the performer to range from different exercise movements and therefore created contrast. This helped to keep the performer on task and focussed. Progression is closely related to overload and the increase of weights over time allowed the performer to increase training. By not lifting the same weights, they were able to advance in their program, for example week one they lifted a less amount of Kilograms and week five they lifted more Kilograms.
Weaknesses of the method
I believe a weakness to the project is that the program only lasted a duration of 6 weeks. This could not be long enough as realistically, it would have lasted 3 months to be able to show significant improvement. This short period of time frame may not have had significant benefit to performer’s say of other sports working to different components of fitness. Another considerable weakness could be that different types of training weren’t used. This could have created boredom. It may have been useful if plyometrics were used. Plyometrics would have allowed energetic variation of training. My performer may have preferred plyometrics for a type of training instead of just using resistance machines in the gym because it could have been practiced at their own netball practices.
Influence of outside factors
An outside factor that affected the overall training was the fact my performer had a specific amount of coursework that needed to be completed. This meant Coursework was a big priority to the performer as they wished to complete it on time therefore altered the amount of times they visited the gym. A weakness that was also fairly apparent was the fact that the performer had other commitments. Their motivation levels were low as they were training by there self. This meant that there wasn’t anybody to help spur the performer on to maintain training levels.
Consistencies and inconsistencies of the results.
The performer managed to increase the number of successful dodges, passes, interceptions, pivoting and footwork offences even though they weren’t all main aims of the personal exercise program. By making more successful dodges, interceptions, pivoting and footwork offences, the performer was able to create more free space to be able to receive passes from other team members. This was beneficial to the performer as they were able to lose the defender and put set plays into the game. This could show that their power in their legs and arms has increased with a psychological improvement as the somatic symptoms of their anxiety decreased. The exercise program contained resistance machines which could have aided the power in their legs and arms, ultimately causing them to have better agility and ability to move at a quicker rate. The increase of successful dodges, interceptions, pivoting and footwork offences shows that a physiological development has occurred as a result of the exercise program. Many of the results that were gained were originally expected. I expected to find that the performer would increase or better all the results from the pre testing session and from the original hypothesis. The performer was made to carry out fitness tests in order to identify whether any kind of physiological improvements were made. The performer managed to improve their power from each situation and it was expected that the performer’s muscular ability would increase prior to the six week training program if they maintained the exercises and training. Maintaining the training meant that there was a higher chance of bettering their performance in training and in competition. The pre and post test results have consistencies with the original hypothesis. It was presumed that the exercise program would improve the power of the performers skeletal muscles involved in the game of netball. By carrying out the tests, it allowed comparisons to be made from before the training started to when the training finally ended. By keeping the validity of the tests equal, it maintained a consistent result as to the improvement from the before test results to the after program results. An inconsistency that arose from looking at the results was that although the performer had less motivation towards the training, they made an attempt at every opportunity to intercept the ball against the opposite team. One skill that showed an inconsistency was the performer’s dramatic improvement in intercepting the ball. The improvement of 68% wasn’t expected however could show that the performers power has indeed increased. This inconsistency was an unusual occurrence which could have been due to many elements. The hypertrophy of the skeletal muscles may have caused this performance to improve.
Results in relation to relevant theories
The results that concluded the six week training program may have had some effect on the Energy systems. (7) “The ATP-PC system is for high intensity short bursts; the anaerobic glycolysis system for intermediate bursts of quite high intensity (this system produces the by-products of lactate ions and hydrogen ions, commonly known as lactic acid); and finally, there is the aerobic system for long efforts of low to moderate intensity.” Raphael Brandon. When performing exercise the body requires energy to function. This energy is supplied by taking in fuel in the form of food. Breaking down food releases chemical energy which is stored in the body’s cells as a high energy compound (ATP). “In activity lasting longer than about 2 seconds, the resynthesis of ATP relies on a substance called phosphocreatine (PC), which is also stored in our muscles” University of Sheffield PE Department. ATP is needed to supply energy for muscular contractions. Energy is released by the breakdown of ATP which must then be re-synthesised so that the process can start again. This is due to ATP not being stored in large amount in skeletal muscles, meaning that it has to be continually made in order for our muscles to continue contracting. (6) “The factor that determines which group a fibre type falls into is that of ATP metabolism. Whether a fibre is slow or fast twitch depends on how rapidly it oxidises ATP.” The body uses the Glycolytic system to supply energy for bouts of exercise lasting around 2-3 minutes. Most netball players will mainly rely on this energy system to supply the majority of their energy during a match. This means that netballers often acquire large amounts of lactic acid. The performer may have increased their lactate threshold and therefore would have found performance easier as there would be less fatigue. Also, the improvement of the energy systems may have been a reason for the passing improvement due to hypertrophy of the muscles and respiratory system. Once the performer completed the 6 week program, it could be generalised that the muscles within the performer’s body, if they were stressed enough, muscular hypertrophy took place. The training also altered the level of ATP-PC regeneration. The game of netball is mainly anaerobic and therefore needed to be based around the correct energy systems. Doing this increased performance levels in training and in competition. The greater the intensity of work done in the 6 week exercise program the better the performer could achieve prior to the point when they began to accumulate lactic acid and the faster sustained pace they could tolerate. The limiting adaptations were the capillary density, fatty acid breakdown enzyme level and mitochondria density in the specific skeletal muscles used. These adaptations improved the performer’s ability to pass the ball quicker, throw the ball further, make quicker interceptions and provide a more successful performance.
Summary of findings and relation to initial hypothesis
Research Hypothesis
The use of a progressive weight training programme improved the power of a netball player. As a result of the training programme the player avoided more interceptions and passed the ball for longer distances in competitive match situations.
The initial aim of the project was to look at a performer, identify their major weakness through observation and to improve the performance of a netball player by improving this major weakness. The performer was identified to have a weakness in their power therefore affecting their ability to make accurate passes to fellow team members. the performer had an overall weaker game during the competition situation. One of the most noticeable issues was that the performance seemed less relaxed compared to the training session. Facial expressions were a key indication that the performer wasn’t in control and wasn’t processing the movement of the game. Their eyes were noticeably unfocussed and this affected the way in which they perceived situations. This no longer seems to be an issue with the performer. In relation to the initial hypothesis, the psychological issue was resolved as assumed it would once the physiological issues had too been resolved. The physiological major fault within the performer’s competition was their speed. The pace of the game was fairly quick due to the opposing team’s standard. Speed was an issue in many variables of the match. One particular fault was the performer had some difficulty in losing the defender. They made attempts at dodging however the defender managed to keep up the pace. Another factor the performer’s speed affected was their sprints for the ball when receiving a pass. The team player had thrown the ball however the performer wasn’t on target for the ball when they began their sprint which meant they lost possession. This lack of speed during the sprint could have been due to a physiological lack of power in the muscles. This was resolved by the six week exercise program and the performer made a remarkable improvement in their passes and ability to dodge therefore with relation to the initial hypothesis, did improve their weakness of power. Therefore, the research hypothesis can be accepted as the performer showed improvement in their weakness of power. They were able to pass the ball more accurately and help to gain possession for the team in a match situation.
Suggestions for modifications
If I had to do the project again, I would make certain modifications to the six week program so that it would be more beneficial and more appropriate to the performer.
One suggestion I would make to the alterations of the program would be that I would include a partner to the training program. By making the performer train with a partner, this would increase motivational levels and prevent the performer from wanting to skip a training day or from not putting 100% effort into the training. A is a really good way of getting the most out of gym sessions, training consistently and making the experience far more enjoyable. A is highly beneficial. When lifting weights, particularly free weights, a can ‘spot’ for you. This can involve helping you move the weight from the rack to the start position, or back onto the rack at the end of the set. The use of varied training practices would also help to keep motivation levels up. The inclusion of plyometrics into the program would allow deviation from the general resistance machines and therefore keep the performer interested and on the ball. exploit the stretch-shortening cycle of muscles. This involves rapid alternation of lengthening and shortening of muscle fibers against a resistance. The resistance involved is often a weighted object such as a but can also be the body itself as in jumping exercises. (4) Plyometrics is used to develop explosive speed, and focuses on instead of maximal strength. The performer could also use free weights in their program. Free weights are dumbbells, barbells, and kettle bells. They do not constrain users to specific fixed movements and therefore require more effort from the individual's muscles. Weight machines are safer than free weights for novice trainees. Users can focus more on the effort they are putting into the exercise. One limitation of many free weight exercises and exercise machines is that the muscle is working maximally against gravity during only a small portion of the lift. Another issue that arose with the personal exercise program was the duration of the training. Next time I would increase the length of time that the performer would train for. By increasing the length from 6 weeks to 12 weeks would allow the performer to become more accustomed to the program itself and would allow alterations to training days/weights if any kind of problems occur. The 12 week program would be more suited and could show greater difference in pre and post testing as it would increase the chances of muscular hypertrophy.
Bibliography
Websites
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