Analysing the effects of stress and anxiety on sports performers Stress is basically defined as any influence, which disturbs the natural equilibrium of the body. It is

Another method is called self-talk where basically the performer blocks out the crowd and just simply talks themselves through the motions of what's needed. This is especially effect if the performer suffers from pre match nerves or something as they it can have a calming effect upon them. It would also improve the performer confidence for example if they said to themselves after each shot "that was good shot" then they would feel far better about their ability. This would be effective in sports that need fine tuned skills and steady nerves such as archery or snooker where one bit of movement would completely disrupt the shot. Concentration is a vital aspect of any sport as it can mean the difference between success and failure. Overall these techniques of relaxation are a form of meditation and are linked directly to sport.

Many players have a mental training routine, which they go over inside their head before they perform. Performers usually find a calm quiet place to go over what they are going to do out on the pitch. During a performance a player will focus their mind on one key point, which is usually breathing in order to calm down and dispose of their nerves. Although a small amount of nerves are necessary in order to concentrate. A sportsman will eventually be able to relax and concentrate upon the task at hand. Some players have superstitions, which may seem stupid but make them feel far more relaxed and confident going into a game. An example of this could be a footballer always being last out of the changing rooms or putting his right boot on first. However this does not always have a positive effect, as if a player does not achieve an optimum level of arousal then they will not perform to the best of their ability. For example if a player becomes too relaxed before a game then they will not be fully focused as if a player is not a little nervous then they will not concentrate.

Other people may have traditions, which they believe will improve their performance for example someone passing something down to their children. Key factors such as these will more often than not lead to positive outcomes as it puts the player in a positive frame of mind before he/she has even started which can only be good thing. However TOTAL relaxation before an event is not necessarily a good thing.

Stress, arousal and anxiety can have many effects upon a performer both positive and negative. Arousal can be defined as being a general mixture of both the physiological and psychological levels of activity that a performer experiences. Highly energised states can be caused by an individual or team competing in an important competition. Arousal is not seen as good or bad, it appears to represent the level of energy or effort that a learner/performer develops and applies to a sporting situation. Arousal is a state of readiness to perform that helps motivate individuals. Whereas anxiety is a negative reaction of a performer to stress, this often leading to over arousal (worry and nervousness). It is when a player becomes over aroused that their performance can start to deteriorate. For example in football when players such as Roy Keane or Duncan Ferguson become over aroused more often than not they will end up being sent off for aggressive and violent behaviour.

Anxiety is linked to the negative emotions a person experiences as a result of the cognitive and physiological effects of arousal and also stress. Therefore anxiety is usually associated with feelings such as nervousness, worry and apprehension. An example of anxiety could be the footballer Paul Furlong who used to always throw up before a match due to nerves. As mentioned earlier stress is defined as any influence, which disturbs the natural equilibrium of the body. It is the non-specific response of the body to any demand made on it. Therefore it is a reaction to any given situation. There are many sporting example of stress within sport a good example is when tennis players throw their rackets down in frustration with their overall game and also if they have performed poorly or not to their usual level.

There are many theories, which relate to sports performance. The first is called drive theory, which basically relates arousal and performance. This theory states that as arousal levels rise so does the performance level. This

Theory is very simple and does not take into account the type of task performed. The arousal could exaggerate the individual's dominant response meaning tat if they have learnt the skill well then their dominant will be exaggerated positively but if they are a novice then their level will drop to make a worse performance. This mite work for strength related tasks such as press ups, but it would not work for more complex games such as snooker or darts.

A more updated version of drive theory is the inverted "U" theory. This theory, which was found in 1908 aims to address the criticism of drive theory. It basically says that although arousal does improve performance there is an optimum and once arousal goes beyond this point there will be a negative effect such as performance decreasing, and not having as positive effect upon the team.

The inverted U part is what the graph looks like as it relates arousal to performance. This optimum is also called the ideal performing state it is also referred to as " the zone". This could lead to many sporting example of when teams have not just been able to maintain their optimum even though they are the clear favourites. An example of this would be in the World Cup final in 1998 where brazil were unable to overcome France even though they were clear favourites.

Another theory relating to stress, arousal and anxiety is called catastrophe theory. The catastrophe theory is similar to the inverted U hypothesis in that both state that if arousal increases it will have a positive effect upon a performance up to a certain level. Catastrophe theory then states that in highly competitive and important matches, where both high arousal and anxiety combine if a player where to become over aroused then instead of a steady decline in performance as stated in the inverted U theory the deterioration will be much more extreme and will have a dramatic effect on their ability to make decisions and will also effect their concentration. Recovery from this catastrophe can be very difficult, extreme mental toughness will be necessary if they are to work their way gradually back to their optimum arousal and also their peak performance.

Dealing with stress can be more difficult especially long-term stress. Biofeedback is a method used to deal with this. It is linked to controlling muscular tension and helps a performer deal with long term stress. Performers are taught to control muscular tension by being attached to a machine, which measures and amplifies specific internal muscular nervous action. Through practice the performer learns to relax the specific muscles by using a method that suits them. After this, relaxation techniques could be applied. This could be applied within football to players who are constantly getting stressed and making rash decisions, it could make them alter their game and get better results and a maximum performance. Another method of relaxation is called Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR) this technique involved an athlete tensing and relaxing their muscle groups individually and sequentially in order to relax their whole body and also their mind. This can also be known as mind to muscle relaxation as muscles are tensed and relaxed in order to induce total relaxation.

There are two steps in the self-administered Progressive Muscle Relaxation procedure:

* Deliberately tensing muscle groups.

* Releasing the induced tension.

After this process is complete the athlete will be able to know the difference between a tensed muscle and a relaxed muscle. After a muscle is tensed the relaxation effect is deepened which also has an effect upon involuntary muscles. This can be practised using a series of taped instruction or by the psychologist giving out the instruction. It usually starts at the hands by making a clenched fist gesture then relaxing ad would carry on through the arms and so on.

Meditation is frequently confused with various forms of concentration. The purpose of concentration exercises is to focus full undivided attention on a specific aspect of functioning of our mind and/or the body in order to accomplish a certain goal or develop a certain skill. Exercises such as yoga, tai-chi, breathing exercises, visualization are all forms of concentration.

In contrast, meditation is an exercise, aiming to prevent thoughts in a natural way, by deeply relaxing the physical body and then trying to keep the mind completely "blank" with no thoughts whatsoever. This state may be maintained for a few seconds or a few hours, depending on your skill. Meditation could be used to relax before a game if you were nervous. It could be used to reach the optimum if a player was excessively nervous before a game.

Richard Aldridge