'Critically discuss the key considerations when selecting appropriate coaching styles in PE and Youth Sport, with particular reference to the learning outcomes'.
Sports Coaching Part A
'Critically discuss the key considerations when selecting appropriate coaching styles in PE and Youth Sport, with particular reference to the learning outcomes'.
When delivering a session either in Physical Education or in Youth Sport, the participants are young people normally under the age of 16. The way in which you execute and deliver a task may be the same (they are primarily in the cognitive and associative phases of learning) but the overall learning outcomes may differ slightly. In Physical education the values, which are developed, are similar, but focusing more on the introduction of sports and the mass participation. Whether as in Youth sport the focus is on 'one sport' and there is very much a win ethic involved. The main difference is that in PE it is a 'formal inculcation of knowledge' (Hill, 2001), or a taught lesson by a Teacher, compared to Youth Sport where a Coach normally delivers the session.
When the participants are young their knowledge of Sport is small, and they have not yet comprehensively learned the skills and techniques involved. Therefore the way that coachers or teachers deliver tasks should be pitched at an appropriate level to the participants, for example; in Hockey you wouldn't teach the 'flick shot' to a group of novice boys, as it would be too complex for a beginner.
When developing young performers, it is essential to understand the basic 'ingredients' for successful learning. In Football and ideal session would contain the following elements:
* Repetition
* Fun & Enjoyment
* Small-sided games
* Praise & positive reinforcement
* Coaching
* Demonstration (Ford, 1999)
These above elements are suitable for young people, it is important to remember that when young people in PE or Sport are in a session, they learn much better when they are having fun. Positive feedback and 'brief' advice are necessary, up to a limit so that they understand and take in information, and not so that there is too much to remember then they would forget most of the information received.
So when coaching young people in PE or Youth sport it is important to adopt the most effective coaching style, and each teacher or coach will have their own ways of presenting information, and the style each chooses depends on several variables such as:
* The teacher's personality & abilities
* The type of activity to be taught
* The ability of those being taught
* The level of motivation of those being taught
* The age range of the students
* Environmental factors. (Hill, 2001)
There are many styles for how to coach/teach skills to young people. But there are two main coaching styles - autocratic (do as I say) and democratic (involve the participants in decision making). More simply there are four styles: Command (autocratic), Reciprocal, Problem solving and Discovery (reciprocal).
The ...
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* The teacher's personality & abilities
* The type of activity to be taught
* The ability of those being taught
* The level of motivation of those being taught
* The age range of the students
* Environmental factors. (Hill, 2001)
There are many styles for how to coach/teach skills to young people. But there are two main coaching styles - autocratic (do as I say) and democratic (involve the participants in decision making). More simply there are four styles: Command (autocratic), Reciprocal, Problem solving and Discovery (reciprocal).
The characteristics of the group affect what type of coaching style you use. If the participants are novices they may need a more direct or 'command' style where the teacher/coach takes control. If the participants are experienced, a more democratic style of teaching is required, so that there is more input from the group and allowing individuals to make valuable contributions. Where motivation is concerned, if the performers' motivation is low, then the coaching style should be more enthusing and reward based to increase concentration and motivation. But is motivation within the group is high then the coach can concentrate on the task, rather than trying to increase motivation. With age, the older participants get the more democratic the task should be, and the same with the responsibility level of the task. Responsibility shouldn't be placed on young children, as it can become too complicated for them. (Mackenzie, 2004)
When participants are in the cognitive (beginner) phase of learning like many who are involved in PE or Youth Sport, it is essential for the teacher or coach to provide a general idea of the movement or task by using verbal instructions and demonstrations. Teachers/coaches should break down skills into constituent parts to simplify the task and then re-introduce them in a logical sequence or order (i.e. invasion sports; easy to difficult progressions such as initially learning to control the ball before concentrating on passing or introducing opponents gradually). Provide prescriptive feedback for error correction and motivation purposes. Employ specific practice drills and low contextual interference conditions initially i.e. only practice one skill per session.
(A Mark Williams et al, 2003)
Once participants gain a certain amount of experience in sport they begin to become more competent. This is the stage at which feedback occurs and the learner gradually becomes more aware of increasingly subtle and complex cues. Motor programmes are formed in this 'Associative' phase of learning (Hall et al, 1995). In this phase teachers/coaches are to encourage performers to evaluate their own performance. Also teachers should increase progressively the complexity of the task, e.g. in Football, introduce opponents, restrict time and space. Increasing the variability in practice as well as the amount of functional or contextual interference by practising more than one skill in a session, i.e. in Rugby, Tackling and Passing. (A Mark Williams et al, 2003)
In the Autonomous phase, which is the final phase of learning, the participant's movements become almost automatic, and any distractions are ignored and the performer is able to concentrate on more peripheral strategies and tactics. Although it is very important that a coach or teacher doesn't assume that learning has stopped. This is when a performer becomes competent in a Sport or series of movements. For a coach or teacher then, it's important to use minimal intervention, i.e. encourage the participant to evaluate their own feedback; use demonstrations less frequently. It is essential to only deal with high components of the task. Also, present the learner with complex, realistic and challenging practice e.g. in invasion games, further restrict the time and space available to perform. Using Football as an example, make sure the participants practice under realistic match conditions and encourage improvisation and adaptability through variety in practice (Wein, 2001). Employing high variable practice conditions and high contextual interference practice session are recommended, so you can practice more than one skill in each session. (A Mark Williams et al, 2003)
Mosston and Ashworth (1968) (Mosston's Spectrum diagram below) identified a range of teaching "styles", which are defined by the degree to which the teacher and the learner dictate the learning process. The more decisions that are being made by the teacher, the more the style is referred to as "command". When it is the learner that is making all of the decisions, then the style is said to be "discovery". This relationship between the amount of decisions made by the teacher and learner in the teaching/learning process is shown below:
A B C D E F G H I J
'A' being Coach/Teacher dominant, 'J' being Learner dominant
The Mosston spectrum of teaching styles.
As can be seen, the spectrum includes a range of styles between the two extremes. Teachers generally adopt a style that best suits them, but will be able to adjust the style to suit the situation.
Three styles are most commonly used:
* Command style A
* Reciprocal style E
* Problem-solving
* Discovery J
The command style of teaching is based on the idea of stimulus-response learning theory. The teacher controls every aspect of the lesson, and the learners have no choice or freedom in what goes on. They simply respond to the coaches/teachers instructions.
The advantages of Command style teaching are:
* Lessons can progress quickly
* Safe activity as the teacher has tight control
* Pupils know what is required.
* Suitable for large groups.
The disadvantages of Command style teaching are:
* Fails to motivate learners as lessons can be boring
* Pupils can become clones of the teachers.
* Self discipline is not developed and there is little personal development.
The reciprocal style of teaching is based around the cognitive theories of learning. In this style, the learners often work in pairs, one doing the work, whilst the other observes. The teacher decides which aspect of performance should be 'worked practised'. The students are encouraged to work together to decide how to develop the performance.
This style of teaching is quite common in gymnastics. It uses the learner's cognitive processes, such as observing, comparing, fault-finding, correcting and communicating.
The advantages of Reciprocal teaching are:
* Increase number of decisions by student (comparison to command).
* 1:1 coaching ratio
* The student's self image is improved as he/she can see that they can help others.
* Pupil interaction is increased therefore developing interpersonal skills such as communication.
The disadvantages of Reciprocal teaching are:
* The students could provide feedback that is wrong.
* The process is time consuming.
* Not suitable with large groups.
* Worksheets are required to guide students.
Problem-solving is occasionally used in sports. This style is even more involved with cognitive processes than the reciprocal style, in as much as learners are expected to make most of the decisions concerning their own learning.
The teacher sets open-ended questions, so that all answers to the problem are considered correct, e.g., "invent a way of moving over this gymnastic mat that shows both a tucked position and an extended position".
The advantages of the Problem-solving teaching style are:
* Students develop creativity and organisational skills.
* Develops diversity of thought and performance.
* Enables the pupil to progress at his or her own rate.
* Encourages group interaction.
The disadvantages of problem-solving as a teaching style are:
* Students may not learn correct skills.
* Time consuming
* Discipline could be difficult as all pupils are doing different activities
* Needs a small group.
(http://www.compulink.co.uk/~dkeegan/PE/psychology/organisation%20of%20practices/organisations.htm - 22/4/04)
References:
* Ford D, (1999), Coaching Youth Soccer, Kangaroo Press, Australia.
* Hall K G & Magill R A. (1995). Variability of practice and contextual interference in motor skill learning. Journal of Motor Behaviour. 27, 299-309.
* Hill, M et al. (2001). PE for You, Nelson Thornes, United Kingdom.
* Mackenzie, B. (2004). 'Coaching Styles',
http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/styles.htm, accessed on 22/4/2004.
* Mosston M, & Ashworth S, (1986). Teaching Physical Education. Merril, UK.
* Reilly T, & Williams A M, (2003), Science and Soccer 2nd Edition, Routtledge, London.
* Wein H. (2001). Developing Youth Soccer Players. Human Kinetics, Hong Kong.
* http://www.compulink.co.uk/~dkeegan/PE/psychology/organisation%20of%20practices/organisations.htm - accessed on 22/4/2004.