There are many strategies a coach or teacher can utilize to control and maintain motivational intrinsic values, within a performer. A coach could make use of positive and negative reinforcement. They would need to be aware of the effect that reinforcers have and how to use them effectively to ensure appropriate learning. Positive reinforcement involves the use of a stimulus to create feelings of satisfaction to encourage a repetition of the performance. This could involve praise from a coach or emphasizing the feeling of completing a set goal. “Success itself can act as a reinforcer” (Hodder et al 2000) thus increasing motivation. As some of the performer’s skills become more demanding, praise for accomplishing aspects of the required response may be given. The coach or teacher must make sure that the praise and high approvals are given soon after the correct behaviour, in order so that the performer can link their actions, and feelings, to future performances.
Negative reinforcement operates in a reversed manner. It involves the “removal of an unpleasant stimulus when the desired response occurs” (James. R2000). I can relate this to a performance of my own during a basketball practice session. My coach stopped shouting at the team and I if our actions were correct. From this I was able to familiarize myself with correct and incorrect actions in the game, perceived from the shouting.
Goal setting is generally seen as an extremely influential method for enhancing intrinsic motivation. “A goal is what an individual is trying to accomplish. It is the object or aim of an action” (Lock, 1981as quoted in Sport and P.E). A coach must carry out this method carefully. Goal setting can be capable of helping a performer’s self confidence, enhance intensity and persistence, the performer’s attention and by and large and have a positive effect on performance. Goal setting can allow a performer to cope with stress provoking situations, thus controlling and limiting the amount of arousal and anxiety used.
Yerkes and Dodson Inverted ‘U’ Hypothesis proposed that “as arousal levels increase, so does the level of performance, but only up to an optimum point, which is usually reached at moderate levels of arousal” (Thompson. G et al 2000). The theory suggests that beyond the point of arousal, a performer’s performance will worsen. There are several reasons that can determine the optimum point of arousal. Fine movements and complex skills, which require large amounts of attention, require a lower arousal level e.g. snooker, archery etc. It also depends on what type of skill level an athlete has reached. A beginner for example need all of their attention to be focused on the skill and do not cope with arousal levels so well. It is said that “extroverts generally perform better with high arousal levels” (Morton. D et al 2000). Introverts would struggle somewhat to control their arousal, as they tend to avoid situations with tasks of high stimulation aspects.
Therefore coaches must be aware of the negative affects goal setting can create. Setting unrealistic goals, for example, “You must beat your time by 4 seconds in tomorrows 100m race”, this not only has an effect on motivation but can also have an effect on the performer’s anxieties. To successfully negotiate goal setting, there are many points that a coach must consider for his/her and the performer’s responsibilities. He or she must develop goal achievement strategies. There is simply no point in setting goals is the performer isn’t given any strategies to achieve their goals. In past experience I believe this has a lot to do with the coaches sporting knowledge. An example of this would be running, the performer may have to cover so many miles per week or train for longer than 20 minutes, 3 times a week. It is important to log the goals. By committing them to paper there is no chance of their goals being forgotten or misinterpreted. This possibly is seen as an unofficial contract between performer and coach. Providing goal support in order to achieve certain goals, the performer will need to make certain allegiances in terms of time and perhaps even money-wise.
Another way to improve intrinsic motivation is to give feedback. Two of the main functions of feedback are to motivate and instruct. “Motivational feedback allows performance to learn specifically what they have been doing incorrectly and to have a benchmark for improving performance” (R. Weinberg & D. Gould 1995). For example a netball player who believes she is improving her defending skills and playing well, realises at the end of the game that she constituted too many of the fowls given in the match. Here the coach has two options to give feedback. He or she could give motivating “You managed to intercept the ball very well today, well done!” Information about the success of a performance or even part of the performance can enhance her motivation. However the feedback could be some what informational. “Ok, today went well, but let’s try and work on your aggression within the game so all of your interceptions are done successfully”. This type of feedback “provides information about (a) the specific behaviours that should be performed, (b) the levels of proficiency that should be achieved and (c) the performer’s current level of proficiency in the desired skills and activities” (R. Weinberg & D. Gould 1995)
I believe that in order to engender a feeling of enthusiasm and motivation, the coach must understand their performer’s motives for involvement, and work around them to suit the traits of the individual. They must play an essential role in the motivational environment and ultimately use their behaviour adjustments to change negative participant motives. In addition the coach would also benefit from recognising the non- motivational factors that influence a sports performance and behaviour and learn to assess whether motivational factors may be readily changed.
References
Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology- (Weinberg, R.S & Gould. D. 1992)
A-Z Physical Education Handbook- (James.R, Thompson. G. & Wiggins. N 2000)
Advanced Physical Education-(Morton. D, Baugniet. N, Jones. G, Walters. D 2000)
Sport and P.E-(Wesson. K, Wiggins. N, Hartigan. S 2000)
Psychology of Physical Activity-(Biddle S.J.H, Mutrie. N 2001)