Movement within the Body and the Cardiovascular System
Anatomy; Movement within the Body and the Cardiovascular System
Task One; Movement within the Body
The Nervous System
Anatomy of a Nerve Cell
Cell Body
Its membrane is sensitive to signals from other nerve cells. The information is input here.
Dendrites
Well branched processes, they reach out from the cell body. The information is also input here.
Axon
These are the primary transmitting line of the nervous system Conducts nerve impulses to surrounding cells. The axon end branches of into nerve endings. The axon is usually around 1 micrometer in diameter. The longest axon in the body is called the sciatic nerve and it begins at the base of the spine, it ends at the toes of each foot. The axon can be thousands of times longer than its diameter. Typically a nerve cell will only have one axon but this will have extensive branching to other cells
Nodes of Ranvier
These are gaps in the myelin sheath that allow for information to jump from axon to axon of neighbouring nerve cells.
Nerve endings
These branch of and are attached to different muscle fibres, on the end of a nerve ending is a synaptic bulb. They contain a neurotransmitter substance that will allow for action potential to be applied to neighbouring cells
Synaptic Bulb
Information is output here to the muscle fibres. Nerve Cells Communicate via electrical and chemical synapses in synaptic transmission.
The Neuromuscular Junction
when the electrical impulse arrives at the presynaptic terminal, calcium channels open up and relapses calcium ions with a charge of 2+ (Ca2+). This stimulates excitation-contraction coupling (ECC), this ECC causes a neurotransmitter containing vesicle to attach itself to the nerve cells cell membrane which in turn causes acetylcholine to be released into the synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine then crosses through the synaptic cleft and binds itself to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors that can be located on the sarcolemma. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are ion channels which when stimulated by acetylcholine they open to allow ions to pass through in the muscles.
The Brains Role in the Nervous System
A part of the brain called the cerebellum is involved with co-ordination of our movement. Its purpose is to compare what we are doing with what thought your were going to do and then correct them if needs be, for example when trying to catch a cricket ball you may realise that you are holding your arms to far out and then bring them towards you. The arms being too far out are what you though you needed to do, and bringing them closer to you is what you needed to do. The cerebellum is party responsible for motor programme learning e.g. riding a bicycle, as constant control of muscle contraction is required.
The Central Nervous System
It is the central nervous system (CNS) that controls our muscle contraction in terms of power how far how fast, which muscles etc. the brain ands spinal cord are accountable for stimulating the nervous system to carry an electrical impulse to the destination muscle to make it contract.
Most nerves connect directly to the CNS via the spinal cord; there are 12 cranial nerves that directly connect to the relevant parts of the brain.
Most of our nerve endings are in our stomach and large amounts are in the brain. The electrical impulses that our CNS ...
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The Central Nervous System
It is the central nervous system (CNS) that controls our muscle contraction in terms of power how far how fast, which muscles etc. the brain ands spinal cord are accountable for stimulating the nervous system to carry an electrical impulse to the destination muscle to make it contract.
Most nerves connect directly to the CNS via the spinal cord; there are 12 cranial nerves that directly connect to the relevant parts of the brain.
Most of our nerve endings are in our stomach and large amounts are in the brain. The electrical impulses that our CNS carries can also be termed nerve impulses or action potential.
Nerve impulses travel rapidly reaching from the cell body
The Sympathetic Nervous System
The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) purpose is to regulate many homeostatic processes and mechanisms in the body.
SNS releases fibres that innervate tissues in almost every organ system, from pupil diameter to urinary out put. It is also known for being responsible to the hormonal and stress control ‘fight or flight reaction’ which essential raises the heart rate to prepare you to either fight or retreat from the situation either of which will usually require physical activity to do so.
The Parasympathetic Nervous System
The parasympathetic system opposed the sympathetic nervous system, in all their functions, but because of this they complement each other. The parasympathetic nervous system is part of the of the autonomic branch of the peripheral nervous system.
Parts of the body usually associated with PNS are the cranial nerves 3,4,5and 6 and the spinal nerves S2 to S4. The PNS and the SNS has pre- and post- ganglionic neurons
The PNS uses only acetylcholine (ACh) for this neuro transmitter. ACh in the PNS operates with two types of receptors, muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors.
Vagus Nerve
This is the tenth of the twelve cranial nerves. It is the only nerve that starts at the medulla oblongata. It then continues its length, through the jugular foramen, down the head and to the abdomen, it then travels from the spinal cord in the carotid sheath, laterally placed to the carotid artery, it then ends behind the left bronchus.
‘The vagus nerve supplies motor parasympathetic fibers to all the organs except the suprarenal (adrenal) glands’ www.wikipedia.com/vagus+nerve
- Salpingopharyngeus muscle
- Levator veli palatini muscle
- Muscles of the larynx
- Palatopharyngeus muscle
- Superior pharyngeal constrictors
- middle pharyngeal constrictors
- inferior pharyngeal constrictors
- Palatoglossus muscle
the vagus nerves purpose is to regulated and control heart rate, gastrointestinal peristalsis, sweating, and muscle movements in the mouth, including and the recurrent laryngeal nerve, keeping the larynx open for breathing.
Muscle Contractions
Isotonic
This is when the muscle contracts actively and also shortens in length, making the local joint move. Almost all sport and exercise training needs isotonic contractions. Isotonic contracts strengthen the muscles, and help he different muscle fibre types to develop. But when the muscle is lengthening under tension this can make the muscles sore. When muscles are contracting they gain more strength from exercise at their weakest angle of movement.
Isometric
This is when the muscle contracts but remains the same length. This is good for training your static strength, which aids in moving heavy object or holding up a weight for a period of time. Isometric exercise is time efficient and cause much pain or discomfort. No special equipment is needed to exercise isometric, for example pushing against a wall. But the muscle only gains strength in the angle that you perform the training, for example if holding out a weight at either side using the deltoids to keep them up at a 45o angle from the hips, the muscles will only gain strength at that 450 angle.
Strenuous isometric activity should not be undertaken if you have heart problems as the blood pressure rises due to the blood flow going back to the heart instead of to the muscle, which you are training. Isometric training is not very effective alone it needs to be combines with isokinetic
Isokinetic
This is when the muscle contracts at a constant speed through out the movement, this is different from isometric as isokinetic contraction is usually slower at the start of the movement. It is quite difficult to undertake isokinetic training, as special and usually expensive equipment is needs to measure the speed of the contraction, if it speeds up then more load is added to slow down the contraction, and vice versa. Although difficult to do the muscle does gain even strength through out. It is also the most efficient way to improve muscle strength. Equipment for this type of training is very expensive so most gyms cannot afford to buy it especially public sector gyms.
Concentric Contraction
This is when a muscle shortens in length and develops tension e.g. the upward movement of a leg extension, in a quadriceps exercise.
Eccentric Contraction
This is when tension develops in the muscle when it is lengthening e.g. the downward movement of a leg extension, in a quadriceps exercise.
Task Two; The Cardiovascular System
The Heart
Chambers
Right Atrium
This is one of the four chambers of the heart, is found in the right side above the right ventricle. It receives de-oxygenated blood from the lungs from both the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. It then pumps this blood to the right ventricle via the tricuspid valve. The Sinuatrial node (SAN) is in the right ventricle next to the vena cava.
The right atriums structure is a simple one with their only being the vena cava supplying it with oxygenates blood its role is to supply pump the blood into the right ventricle, it does this with use of the myocardium which contracts in a synchronous wave to push he blood through the tricuspid valve, with out this synchronous wave the systole would be less efficient and so the blood being transported to the active muscle would be in a lesser amount directly effecting how long and how well an athlete could perform their skill, e.g. a 1400 metres distance runner could not run the race as quick if the synchronous wave did not happen through out the right atrium.
Left Atrium
This is one of the four chambers of the heart, it is found on the left side of heart above the left ventricle. It receives de-oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein. The left atrium pumps to take in oxygenated blood, which it then pushes through the bicuspid valve and into the left ventricle. It takes in the blood after systole when it relaxes as the pressure in the atrium decreases more blood is sucked in to equalise the pressure, as the left atrium takes in blood it cannot do this by contracting it uses pressure to take in the blood its slightly rounded shape allow for their to be little blood left in their after contraction making the systole more efficient. This may also help with the more cognitive aspect of sports such as strategy, and consciously thinking about the next kick etc, as there is a sufficient amount of blood being supplied to the brain it will function properly and the athlete is more likely to make a better choice
Left Ventricle
This is one of the four chambers of the heart. It receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium via the bicuspid valve. It typically pumps around 5 litres per minute at rest in the average adult. In average adults its maximum rate is 25 litres per minute but Olympic level athletes have been recorded as much as 45 litres per minute through their heart. The left ventricle undertakes most of the workload of systolic ejection of oxygenated blood through to the body. For a left ventricle to be healthy it must be able to;
- Rapidly relax as to fill with lots of oxygenated blood quickly from the alveoli.
- Contract rapidly, to pressure the blood into the aorta, and must be able to overcome the aortic pressure to do so.
- Under nervous system control the left ventricle must be able to rapidly change its pumping capacity.
The left ventricle has a much bigger myocardium this is to allow for the strongest systole possible to give the blood more potential energy to maintain blood pressure as if the blood pressure dropped less blood is being transported to active muscles and the blood pressure will drop increasing the chance of athlete fainting, this is bad because if the active muscles are not receiving the sufficient amount of oxygen through the blood stream then the performance will be impaired.
Right Ventricle
This is one of the four chambers of the heart. It receives de-oxygenated blood from the right atrium via the tricuspid valve. The right atrium is bigger than the left to allow it to fill with more blood so that more blood can be sent to the alveoli via the pulmonary artery to be re-oxygenated. It is vital to re-oxygenated as much blood as possible to so that an athlete can have the most oxygenated blood begin delivered to their active muscles so that they muscles can have an adequate supply of energy.
Valves;
Pulmonary Valve
Stops any backflow from the right ventricle to the pulmonary vein
Aortic Valve
Stops any backflow from the left ventricle to the aorta
Valves;
Bicuspid Valve
Stops any backflow from the left atrium to the left ventricle. It a dual flap in-between the atrium and ventricle. It opens to create pressure for the superior part of the valve so that blood can flow into the left ventricle during the left atria systole; the then closes after the left atria systole to prevent any back flow
Tricuspid Valve
Stops any backflow from the right atrium to the right ventricle. Have three leaflets and papillary muscles.
Papillary Muscles.
These restrict the movements of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves; they contract to tightness them which prevent inversion. This occurs when the pressure changes. They aid the valves to prevent backflow flow to ventricles into the atriums.
Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle is found in the heart. It is the wall of the heart. When you observe it through a microscope it has a striped appearance.
The heart is constantly contracting then relaxing momentarily. If the heart stopped contracting the person would die. On average an adult’s heart beats approximately 70 times a minute pumping around 5 litres of blood in that minute. Cardiac muscles have some unique features not shared by other muscles.
- Cardiac muscles Don’t fatigue
- Cardiac muscles contract in a ‘synchronous wave’s’ because cells are interconnected, which will be explained further on.
- They are ‘myogenic’; cardiac muscles generate their own nervous impulses.
The ‘Synchronous Wave’s’ of the Heart
For the heart to beat properly the cardiac muscles need to produce a wave like contraction in order for the atria to contract before the ventricles, it is vital for the blood to flow downwards from the atria to the ventricles then upwards out of the aorta and pulmonary artery.
Sinuatrial Node
A specialised node called the sinuatrial node (SA node) (SAN) starts this ‘synchronous wave’ found in the wall of the right atrium. The nerve impulse makes its way through the cardiac tissues from the SA node, as all the muscle fibres are inter-connected; this causes the atria to contract, and pushes the blood to the ventricles. Then the impulse spread through and over the ventricles from the bottom of the heart, with the use of a second wave from the Atrioventricular septum, generated from the Atrioventricular node. Impulse travels across the atria to the AV node the wave then goes down a specialised nerve tissue in the septum. The nerve impulse is then carried to the bottom of the heart where the purkinje fibres (smaller bundles of specialised fibres). The purkinje fibres are upwards and across the ventricles, causing the ventricles to push blood up and out the heart via contraction. Afterwards the ventricle completely relaxes another impulse is started and the cycle begins again. If this synchronisation of the contractions is disrupted it will result in a heart attack. An uncoordinated contraction is known as a fibrillation.
Atrioventricular Node
The Atrioventricular Node (AV node) is a specialised tissue that serves the purpose of providing a pathway for electrical impulses from the atria to the ventricles. It can be found in-between the two atria of the heart
The AV node receives its input from the crista terminalis and the interatrial septum. The AV node is unique in that is a decremental conductor, this means that is can prevent rapid conductions of the ventricles of the heart in cases of arterial fibrillation and other abnormal heart beats. The AV node also delays electrical impulses for around 0.1 seconds to ensure that the ventricles contract only when the atria of empty.
Blood Vessels
There are five categories of blood vessels;
Artery
Take blood away from the heart under high pressure created by the heart. They are bigger than arterioles. They also become smaller and branch off into arterioles. Arteries have three layers, the inner layer called the endothelial layer, the middle layer is called the muscular layer this layer it made of tunica media which is a smooth muscle and is very elastic, and the external layer is the connective tissue known as tunica adventitia. Arteries are constantly under high pressure to transport nutrients and oxygen to all cells not just the muscles.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Anatomy_artery.png" \o "Anatomy of the arterial wall
Pulmonary Artery
There are two of these one supplies a lung each to have the de-oxygenated blood re-oxygenated to supply active muscles with oxygen.
Aorta
This is the largest artery in the body it spans off from the left ventricle; it supplies the body with oxygenated blood and all parts of the systemic circulation. The aorta is very elastic. As he left ventricle contracts the blood rushes into the aorta and forces it to stretch, which give more potential energy to maintain blood pressure during diastole (when the heart relaxes).
Arteriole
These smaller than arteries are branch off from them, they help regulate blood pressure with their elastic walls, blood pressure drops in the arterioles. Cardiac out but and the total peripheral resistance (resistance through out all the arterioles) are the determiners of arterial blood pressure. They deliver blood to the kidneys. These also branch out to become capillaries
Capillary
This is were gaseous and other substance exchanges occur. They are specialised to do so as they are only one cell thick for a quicker exchange. The endothelium is so thin that molecules can pass through via diffusion to enter the body tissues. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessel they are on average 5 µm in diameter. Capillaries are vital in the alveoli. The capillary endothelium transports substances that are too big to diffuse through
Veins
Carry blood towards the heart. All veins expect the pulmonary vein carry de-oxygenated blood. Most veins have valves (venous valves) to prevent any back flow due to drop in blood pressure of gravity. They also have a very thick outer collagen layer to maintain blood pressure and to stop the blood flowing to the lower extremities and ‘pooling’ there. The veins could hold all the blood in our body but, but their total possible volume is reduced as the smooth muscle constricts
Pulmonary Vein
The pulmonary vein carries oxygenated rich blood to the left atrium. This is the only vein in the body that carries oxygenated blood.
- Venules
Systemic Circulation
This is the portion of the circulatory that carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the vital organs other organs and the muscles, then carries de-oxygenated blood back to the heart. The blood flows the systemic path like so…
Left ventricle (Heart) →Aorta→organs and tissues→arteries→arterioles→capillaries→venules→veins→inferior and superior vena cava →Right Atrium (Heart)
Pulmonary Circulation
Right Ventricle→Pulmonary arteries→Lungs red blood cells collect o2→Pulmonary Veins→ Left Artery
To completes the entire circulation the left atrium would pump the blood into the left ventricle and the systemic circulation would begin again, the entire circulation would look like
Left ventricle (Heart) →Aorta→Organs and Tissues→Arteries→Arterioles→Capillaries→Venules→Veins→Inferior and Superior Vena Cava →Right Atrium (Heart) →Pulmonary Arteries→Lungs red blood cells collect o2→Pulmonary veins→ Left Artery
Blood
It is has huge misconception that blood is liquid, it has liquid properties but it is a circulating tissue, it contains many different cells and substances contained in a liquid medium called plasma.
Blood contains;
Erythrocytes (Red blood cells), which contain haemoglobin.
Leukocytes (White blood cells), to fight disease.
Thrombocytes (Platelets), cell parts that help to clot the blood.
Haemoglobin
Contains a lot of iron and bonds with oxygen to make oxyhaemoglobin, it also contains a protein called . Once the oxyghaemoglobin has reached its destination e.g. active muscles if diffuses into them via the capillaries leaving behind de-oxygenated blood (hemoglobin) red blood cells are specialised to that they can carry more oxyghaemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is made from four globular proteins; each protein is made tightly bound with the non-protein heme group. All the proteins are physically arranged in an alpha helix formation with globin fold, these globin folds contain a spare bond in which oxygen can bond with them strongly.
Heme Group
A heme group is an iron atom bonded with four nitrogen atoms, the iron atoms is where the oxygen binds with the four nitrogen atoms.
Myoglobin
Its structure is simple. A single chain of globular protein each protein made of 153 amino acids. Each chain contains a heme group in the center. Myoglobin is the main transportation of oxygen for muscle tissues. It is similarly structured to Haemoglobin. The binding of oxygen to Myoglobin is unaffected by surrounding blood pressure. Myoglobin has been described as having an instant boding tendency.
Haematocrit
This is a measure or the proportion of blood volume that is occupied by erythrocytes. The average is between 38%-52% for men and 37%-47% for women. This can be measured by centrifuging the blood and around 10,000 rpm the erythrocytes and other substances in the blood are heavier than plasma. The volume of the erythrocytes divided by the total sample volume gives the proportion of erythrocytes with in the blood. Of course this only measures a small amount of the blood and the proportion changes around the body; the only truly 100% accurate way to measure would be to sample all the blood.
Factors Regulating the Heart
Nerves from the cardiac control centre (CCC)
Adrenaline
This stimulates the heart by rapidly contorting glycogen into glucose this is called glycogenolysis,
And the slower break down of lipids also for energy.
Receptors
Receptors provide information to the cardiac control centre; this information can be used to regulate the heart rate and the stroke volume
Propriocepter in the muscle and ion the joint give feedback on the limbs change of position
Peripheral chemoreceptors and central receptors;
These detect changes ion our bloods ph, they also detect change sin oxygen levels, carbon dioxide levels, and potassium ion levels.
Task Three: The Respiratory System
The path, which the air takes during respiration, is as follows;
Nasal Cavity→Pharynx→Epiglottis→Larynx→Trachea→Bronchus’→
Bronchioles→ Alveoli→Blood Stream
Respiration
Transports oxygen into the body and transports carbon dioxide out of the body. Respiration uses Oxygen to make energy e.g. glucose, so all humans are dependant on it. Breathing is a sub-conscience activity but can be controlled consciously.
The Mechanics of Breathing
There muscles that are used for breathing are the diaphragm, the internal and external intercostals muscles and the pectoralis minor. The diaphragm is the large dome shaped muscle below the lungs
Inhalation
When the intercostals muscles contract they in turn pull upon the ribs. The diaphragm also relaxes; this moves the ribs and sternum upwards and out wards. The pectoralis major also contract to lift the higher ribs upwards and outwards. Because of this the chest cavity expands significantly and reduces the pressure in the lungs. So the surrounding atmosphere rushes into the lungs to equalise the pressure.
Exhalation
When the intercostals muscles relax they in turn allow the rib cage to drop. The diaphragm contracts and moves up, the sternum and ribs move downwards, this decreases the chest cavity space, and increases the pressure which force out the air.
Pulmonary Ventilation
This is inhalation of the air from the surroundings. The average human lungs can hold around 6 litres of air at a time. The lungs also occupy a very large surface area so that they can absorb as much oxygen as they possibly can make respiration more effective.
Pulmonary ventilation can be categorised as;
Minute ventilation; this is found by multiplying the tidal volume by the respiratory rate, as it is the total volume of air entering the lungs every minute.
Alveolar ventilation; this is found by subtracting the dead space from the tidal volume and multiplying that result by the respiratory rate (Dead space is the air that is inhaled but does not diffuse into the blood stream). This is the volume of gas that reaches the alveoli.
Dead space ventilation; this is found by multiplying the dead space by the respiratory rate, as it is the gas that cant reach the alveoli, it stays in the trachea or bronchus depending on how far it goes down the air ways.
Regulation of Ventilation
The medulla decides the rate of breathing in all stats such as rest sub maximal exercise and maximal exercise. It also aids in the voluntary control of breathing. Irritant receptors, signal for a change in raise breathing rate when pain or rise in temperature is felt. Peripheral chemoreceptor, responds to the surrounding air, such as increased carbon dioxide and in crease oxygen, even increase or decrease in pH. Central chemoreceptors. The medulla can also sense when our lungs are stretching as they’re filling with air, these are sensed by the stretch receptors.
Minute Ventilation and Exercise
- Nasal cavity
This is where air enters air may also enter through the mouth, this usually only happens during intense aerobic exercise.
The air is warmed to body temperature, and dust dirt etc is filtered out by the hairs in the nostrils
- Pharynx
‘Extends from the level of the junction of the hard and soft palates to the base of skull.’ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharynx
- Epiglottis
This is a flap of cartilage its purpose is to prevent foods from entering the trachea. When we swallow the hyoid bone elevates drawing the larynx upward. Because of this the epiglottis moves to a horizontal position which prevents food from falling down the trachea in which case we would choke.
- Trachea
The air then travels to the trachea; this is a passage tube on average around 12 cm long and about 2.5 cm wide. The trachea is kept open by ring of cartilage its physically appears to be shaped like a horseshoe. The reason the trachea has incomplete cartilaginous rings is to let the trachea close slightly so food may slide down the oesophagus. These rings of cartilage are interrupted by smooth muscle with elastic properties called Trachealis muscle. The trachea then splits two ways one for each lung.
- Bronchus
These are composed of smooth muscle. They then branch of many times into bronchioles.
- Bronchioles
These are also made of smooth muscles. These are the first airways that do not contain cartilage. They are usually around 1 mm in diameter
- Alveoli
In relation to their size these have a huge surface area, this specialises them well for effective gaseous exchanges between oxygen and carbon dioxide, so that the oxygen may enter the blood stream the alveoli are surrounded by a plentiful network of capillaries that are only one cell think also to allow for quicker diffusion and gaseous exchange. The lungs contain around 300 million alveoli, with a total surface area of 70-90 square metres. The alveoli had three different types of cells with in their walls;
- Type one cell; form the physical structure of an alveolar wall and keep it solid
- Type two cells; release a substance called surfactant that lowers the surface tension of water and allows the separation of the membrane in turn increasing the capability to exchange gases.
- Type III cells; destroy bacteria.
Lung Volumes and Capacities:
Tidal Volume (Vt)
This is the amount if air that we breath in and out (either may be measured) during normal respiration. This means that there is no conscious control of breathing while measuring Vt. The Vt is usually around half a litre (500ml).
Residual Volume (RV)
This is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal exhalation, not all air in the lungs will be expired. The residual volume is usually around 1.2 litres of air.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
When inhaling normally we are only using around 1/3 of out lungs, IRV is the additional air that we can continue to inhale instantly after breathing in our Vt. This is usually around 3.6 litres of air.
Expiratory Reserve (ERV)
A similar concept to IRV, when after exhaling normally additional air can be exhaled, as the residual volume remains in the lungs. IRV is the tidal volume plus a maximal expiration afterwards. This is usually around 1.2 litres of air.
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
This is the IRV + TV + ERV + RV. As it is the complete totally capacity of air that the lung may hold with in it. It is usually around 6 litres of air. The TLC is affected by and determined by,
- Regular mental functioning, the capability of the individual to inspire fully.
- Regular elasticity of the thorax, (abnormalities can be caused by kyphosis for example)
- Regular elasticity of the lungs (aging can effect this)
- Regular thoracic content (e.g. a lobectomy)
Vital Capacity (VC)
This is the amount of air that it is possible to forces from the lungs immediately after a maximal inspiration (breathing in as much as possible). It is essentially the most air that can be in and out of the lungs, this is usually around 4.8 litres.
Peak Expiratory Flow (PEF)
This is the maximum amount of air flowing during respiration, as we maximally force the air after a maximal inspiration. This can be made notably greater by immediately forcing the air out of the lungs after a maximal inspiration.
Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV1)
FEV1 is the volume of air exhaled during the first second of a forced expiration; this must be started from the level the TLC to be accurate.
Functional Residual Volume (FRV)
The FRV is equal to the ERV + RV. It is the volume of gas remaining in the lung after a normal expiration; it is essentially determined by the individual’s elastic recoil of the chest and lungs. FRV can also be termed the functional residual capacity (FRC).
Reference sheet;
Images (in order of appearance);
Page 1;
Page 7; BTEC National Diploma in Sport and Exercise Science 2003 page 185 figure 7.30
Page 8;
Page 11;
Page 13; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Anatomy_artery.png" \o "Anatomy of the arterial wall
Page 14;
Page 15;
Page 17; Microsoft Encarta Encyclopaedia, Microsoft Corporation 2003
Page 17; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Illu_conducting_passages.jpg
Page 18; Microsoft Encarta Encyclopaedia, Microsoft Corporation 2003
Page 20; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:LungVolume.jpg
