At optimum levels of arousal, a sports performer is likely to perform at their most effective and efficient state; this is because when arousal levels are low, the perceptual field widens, selective attention is not in operation, concentration levels are low and as a result, the athlete is likely to make mistakes. Consequently, when arousal levels are controllably high, and the athlete is ‘In the Zone’, selective attention is fully operational, the perceptual field begins to narrow and the potential to concentrate is maximised. By and large, too little arousal has an inert effect upon the performer, whilst too much results in hyper-vigilance or panic.
The inverted U hypothesis, or theory – can demonstrate negative responses to arousal and anxiety. Often when a performer is out of his or her zone, just as on the diagram, their performance deteriorates and the catastrophe theory kicks in – which initiates two responses: a SOMATIC response, which follows the curve of performance as predicted in the inverted U hypothesis - this change in performance is often due to physiological changes, which include, an alteration in heart and respiration rates, muscular tension and as a result, impaired movement. Due to this response to anxiety, the athlete or performer will be unable to enter their peak zone and continue to perform at a peak flow state. In conjunction with the SOMATIC response is the COGNITIVE response, for which psychologically effects performance. This reaction reflects increasing worry about performance and as a result, an athlete will become ever more apprehensive, for where he or she will develop doubts and become very negative within their thinking. Because of this, attentional changes occur and often lead the athlete in to then, a state of uncontrollable worry, which adversely affects their performance - disenabling them to attain, again, a peak flow state. Both somatic and cognitive anxiety can lead to an extensive turmoil of stress for the performer (later explained) and as a result of the catastrophe theory, can cause an athlete psychologically affected, they cannot participate. The inverted U theory can fit many observations of sports performers, although modification to this assumption would be needed, to apply it to different types of sports, activities, skill levels and personalities.
Zone of Optimal Functioning
For any elite performer, their aim is to control their arousal levels and distinguish a balance between arousal and anxiety – so they are able to find their optimum arousal point, and enter the ‘Zone’ – where at which their perceptual field adjusts itself to its ideal, and the performer is able to focus upon the most relevant cues in their sport, and respond accordingly – performing at their best all of the time. For example: Roger Federer – currently ranked world number 1, more often then not, is able to control arousal levels and ultimately get himself; ‘In the Zone’ and maintain his concentration and efficient performance, achieving the best results upon completion. When an athlete, or a coach is aware of when their performer is in his/her zone of optimal functioning – he/she is able to apply their knowledge to improve their athlete’s performance, by using techniques to move them to that state prior to any competition or matches – so the athlete is at their peak before they begin, with their arousal or competitive anxiety levels within the ‘Zone’.
But what is the Zone of Optimal Functioning?
Sports psychologist Hanin produced the individual zone of optimal functioning. He noticed that many top, elite performers and athletes have and “Individual zone of optimal arousal” for where – when they have fallen or risen in to it, their most effective performance occurs. This theory argues that when an athlete is out side of his/her zone, their performance deteriorates and they are unable to continue to perform as well. When an athlete is ‘In the Zone’ their performance appears effortless and has an automatic outlook – where the athlete is not adversely affected by their environment and feel very much in control of their performance, with their attention and concentration levels balanced and focused. The athlete will loose self-consciousness of the fear that they may fail and gain a desire to succeed, as their emotions have become tied to a ‘learning’ environment. They will become much more intrinsically motivated and so as a result, the execution of their skills, bring results and satisfaction. They
In closing, each sport or activity requires a different optimal level of arousal, including balance between: anxiety, attention, agitation, stress, and motivation. Different people hit the ‘zone’ in the same sports, and different times – which can be a result of, difference in levels of self-efficacy, confidence, ability and personality.
Sports and Arousal Points
Optimum arousal levels are much higher in sports such as:
- Rugby
- 200/400 metres
- Gym/Fitness exercises
- Weight lifting.
Arousal levels decrease a little in sports such as,:
- Sprinting
- Long distance running
- Shot putt events
- Swimming races
- Martial arts.
- Boxing
- Basketball
- High Jump
- Football
- Gymnastics
Are each mid-way in the optimum arousal figure.
Optimum arousal points decrease somewhat in sports such as:
- Diving
- Rounders
- Tennis
- Archery
- Bowling
- Golf
Ultimately, optimum levels of arousal – or optimum arousal points, are affected by: how difficult or intellectual a sport is, how much cognitive energy it requires, and also, how much endurance and persistence the sport/task needs. For example, the arousal levels in a Rugby team training session are likely to be higher because it requires persistence and perseverance from any body taking part - and ultimately - a training session is a low cognitive task, therefore arousal levels are going to be higher, and are likely to be more beneficial to long term performance. Performers become more intrinsically motivated and self-directed, as at training, they are much more eager to learn and improve. Whereas, on the other hand – Golf (putting) which is a high cognitive task, is likely to initiate lower arousal levels - where concentration is at its highest and decision making is essential; so, as a result, the athlete is able to optimise his/her performance to that of the best possible, without becoming agitated in an effort to sink the ball.
The above explanation is evidenced by sport psychologist Oxendine, who argued that higher levels of arousal would be likely to improve performance whenever the sport relied on gross motor skills - for example: Weightlifting, boxing, rugby, etc – but higher levels of arousal would interfere with performance of complex motor skills involving co-ordination, steadiness, concentration and fine movements, including sports such as, snooker and golf.
Relation to Performance
There are four factors at which help psychologists understand how the optimal threshold changes for different individuals and depending on different situations – and how these elements effect individual performance. These factors include:
Personality: Where extroverts are likely to perform most effectively – during periods of high arousal. Whereas, Introverts are likely to perform at their best, during conditions of low arousal. Often extroverts benefit from stress and their selective attention increases, to a point at which it benefits their performance. Too much stress and arousal can lead an introvert out of their ‘zone’ causing their performance, evidenced by the Inverted U, to decrease somewhat.
Type of task: Simple, easy types of activity, such as discus and shot putt, tend to be gross, habitual and consistent. Due to such characteristics, there is a wide margin for error in the sport. During conditions of high arousal, sports such as those mentioned above, are performed much more effectively. Smaller, less simple, complex tasks – are performed (as mentioned above) during conditions of low arousal. For example: Spin bowling in Cricket.
Stage of learning: An elite athlete – who is at their autonomous stage of learning, would notice that high arousal is going to beneficial to their performance because they possess the ability to control both their arousal levels and their competitive anxiety, to a point at which they can ensure they remain in their ZOF. Those performers of who are at the cognitive or associative stages of their learning have a greater need to concentrate and control their anxiety, so it does not negatively effect their performance. Because of this greater need to concentrate, they would learn and perform much better, when calm and in control of their emotions.
Experience: Highly experienced performer – who are often the elite players, at their autonomous stage of learning – are likely to find that their performance is of a much greater standard when their arousal levels are high, as apposed to vice versa. The novice player, less experienced, quite often those at their associative stage of learning – are more likely to find that their performance is much more efficient and of a better standard, when there are conditions of low arousal.
Other, more complex, models and theories for arousal/anxiety and its relationship with performance have replaced the inverted U theory. For example: the multidimensional model.
Multidimensional Model
The multidimensional model is very much the catastrophe theory. It recognises the different components associated with levels of ‘arousal’, which include – physiological alterations, such as increase in heart rate, perspiration etc and the psychological alterations, for example: nervousness, fear of failure, emotional overload, disrupted attention and an inability to concentrate. Often, according to this theory, physiological factors can prove positive on one’s performance, whereas – psychological factors can often lead to a response of stress, anxiety and a greater inability to concentrate on performance. As a result of this anxiety and increased stress, somatic responses based on physiological arousal (mentioned above) and cognitive responses – based on the mind – can occur. The multidimensional theory predicts that as a result of these responses, there will be a negative but linear relationship between cognitive state anxiety and performance; the relationship between somatic anxiety and performance will resemble an inverted U, somatic anxiety will decline once performance begins, but cognitive anxiety may remain high, so long as fear of failure remains, and then cognitive anxiety will generally be stable across time whereas somatic anxiety will tend to rise drastically prior to competition.
The diagram above simplifies this using a ‘cliff’. It suggests that as cognitive anxiety increases, a person is more likely to fall from the cliff – but in response to this, their confidence acts to reduce the initial effect.
Strategies to Control Anxiety, Stress and Arousal
Stress usually has a negative effect on sports performance. Levels of stress depend on how each athlete perceives a ‘stressful situation’ to be. Stressors, which are environmental changes – can induce a stress response; which are initially – physiological changes to the body. These environmental changes can be things such as: crowd noise, spectators, bad refereeing, foul play, competition – one of the most powerful kinds for it causes a lot of apprehension and worry causing competitive anxiety - conflict, with other players or opposition – frustration, which can lead to aggressive behaviour, fuelled by ones own inadequacies or by external influences and the weather (climate) has also bared influence upon stress levels in sport, as if a sports man or women has to train in very hot or very cold conditions, they may become very stressed and agitated. Because of all of these negative aspects, a sports athlete is likely to suffer from rising of arousal levels – which depending on how they react can either be negative upon their performance, or positive. If an athlete becomes aroused to a point at which is uncontrollable, they are likely to respond negatively, however; if they are able to distinguish a balance between their arousal levels and the stressors present – their performance may benefit because they seek a ‘readiness to perform’ and have a serious ‘want’ to prove themselves, or succeed. When experiencing stress, according to psychologist Lazarus – people judge how threatening the stressor is and debate how they are able to cope with the threat.
An example of a negative response of stress: -
Sue Challis a professional trampolinist, always, weeks prior to competition - finds herself stressed and feeling constantly under pressure, despite positive feedback and good performance during training. She becomes very anxious and claims to suffer from a deterioration of confidence – for where, as a result, does not eat, or sleep properly – as a fear of failing. However, when the competition gets closer, she becomes less anxious and is able to reduce any negative thoughts, to a point at where it benefits her performance on the day.
Many sports psychologists devise ways to find intervention techniques to make athletes feel less stressed, at ease and comfortable prior too and during competition. It is important for all sports performers and athletes to remain in a good physiological and psychological state, for optimal performance – therefore, in order for them to perform at their most effective state, they need to stay within their ZOF and remain in that state throughout training and competition. Techniques to eliminate anxiety and optimise performance include elements of cognitive and somatic skills. Cognitive methods to eliminate stress and anxiety include:
IMAGERY
This concept involves the athlete or performer being withdrawn from play or the situation he or she is in. As a form of relaxation for the mind, the athletes needs to focus upon getting themselves in to a peaceful and calm state, where he or she will imagine a quiet setting and maintain control of their emotions. The athlete will need to create a mental picture, maybe a picture of escape – be it in a beach or a field, with nobody else in it – and then using visualisation techniques – relax the body and envision serenity. Hereon, the athlete can then use these current techniques to apply them to their sport. For example: recalling sounds – such as when the ball hits the bat in Cricket. They can also make an attempt to feel what it is like to perform a skill in their sport, be it – a rugby tackle or the exhilaration of running fast. Imagery is very beneficial to sports performers, of who are trying to get themselves in to a state of relaxation, especially during periods of high somatic and cognitive arousal. An athlete can also use imagery, prior to performance – where they initiate within themselves, kinaesthetic images and visual images – which intentionally, prevent negative thoughts and can ultimately increase the athletes confidence and mental stability. Imagery takes two forms: external and internal. Internal imagery is most effective, as it focuses merely upon the mind and can alleviate an athlete’s long-term attitude and performance.
SELF-TALK
Self-talk involves the athlete remaining positive and optimistic about themselves and their performance. The athlete can talk to his or herself, positively about future strategies and ways to improve their performance in the future. This form of stress management technique improves self-confidence and feelings inside oneself. Some sports performers will speak negatively to themselves, which can have a pessimistic response to their performance. If an athlete is telling himself or herself they are going to fall over, or drop the ball – the likelihood is, is that they will do so. However – doing the opposite can have provide positive results, where if a player is telling themselves, “I can do this, I can run fast” the likelihood is, is that with a distinctive balance between optimism and not being overly confident – they will perform effectively. Positive talk is common practice amongst tennis players and people who bat in sports such as Cricket and Rounders especially – because they are in confidence threatening situations, where one may worry that if they fail there may be signs of disapproval from spectators or teammates. Speaking positively out loud commits the athlete to the task and helps to improve self-confidence.
THOUGHTS
This technique requires the athlete to refuse to think negatively. Any negative inclination should be stopped and only optimistic thoughts should be actioned.
CUE UTILISATION
This involves the athlete or sports performer ensuring that he or she is concentrating only on cues that are relevant to their sport, or to the particular situation or time. This is so that concentration levels are much higher and attention is most affective. Top elite athletes use cue utilisation techniques to maintain their focus and ensure that they refrain from being with or around anything that distracts them. If cues within the environment are not used effectively, then the athlete will fail to collect relevant information from around the area of play, for example: a football player may not be aware of movements off of the ball – that are likely to affect his next pass. Irrelevant cues such as spectators or crowd members shouting can also distract a player. Psychologist, Easterbrook, produced a theory called the Cue Utilisation Theory – which argues that as arousal levels increase, the attention span narrows somewhat. Because of this, there may be negative results – therefore it is important for an athlete to remain level-headed, and ensure that he or she ignore irrelevant cues, only concentrating on the relevant one’s.
RATIONAL THINKING
Rational thinking involves the sports performer or their coach, devising ways to ensure that the athlete focuses inwardly in to the internal and narrow style of attention and because anxiety is produced from an imbalance of perception between ability and situational demands, the athlete needs to maintain this focus and evaluate the situations and possible consequences.
Each of the above are seen as long-term changes for athletes, where the aim is to develop a range of psychological skills which can later be used wherever necessary. Alongside the above, there are factors, which include: Time management, goal setting, life-style management and relaxation techniques – where each of which can reduce the likelihood of anxiety and stress during performance.
Somatic methods include:
MUSCULAR RELAXATION and RELAXTION
Muscular relaxation was devised as an effective technique to relax the muscles in the body. The sports performer will increase the tension of the muscles throughout their body and gradually relax each group in turn. Many athletes, who use this technique, begin from the top of the body and work towards the lower body.
Relaxation techniques for the entire body control somatic anxiety more so then cognitive anxiety. There are a number of relaxation techniques and exercises that sports athletes can undertake, including: self-directed relaxation and progressive relaxation training. Self-directed relaxation concentrates on each muscle group (as mentioned above) – and the main aim is for eventually, the athlete will take as little time as possible to become fully relaxed – so later, once completely trained, they can apply this to their sport. This method releases tension and emphasises slow, easy breathing – encouraging visualisation of stress leaving the body and a sense of tranquillity and calmness.
PROGRESSIVE RELAXATION TRAINING
Progressive relaxation training is a longitudinal method of relaxation. This effective form of stress management is a technique concerned with learning to be aware of and to “feel” the tension in the muscles and then to disperse of this tension by “letting go” of it. Sports psychologist Jacobsen devised this method to gain a result of which where the every muscle group in the body can relax themselves at one time. Many top sports performers use progressive relaxation to psyche them up and to release any tension from their body, especially prior to competition – where levels of anxiety and stress are often at their highest.
BIOFEEDBACK
The “Biofeedback” process involves any sports performer or athlete receiving physiological feedback immediately. For example, an ongoing reading from an electrocardiograph can help an anxious athlete in the process of controlling their heart rate, pulse rate and feelings of stress and anxiety.
There are other methods to reduce anxiety and control stress levels in sport, which include: Goal setting, where when an athlete is posed with a threatening or complex situation – he or she may feel anxious or scared – therefore goal setting is able to help alleviate any anxiety that they feel and can help to benefit performance by: redirecting the athletes attention to achievable but challenging goals and by motivating the athlete to develop a variety of strategies that will help them to reach their goals.
OCR National Diploma in Sport –
