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External – is the stress that is caused by the opponent or the force that a performer is competing against. A good opponent will try and cause as much external distress to have a negative effect on the player’s performance. A good example of this would be in a squash game, rather than just batting the ball against the wall as hard as they can, the two players will place shots and creating awkward scenarios for the return shot. This is what a sports performer will try to combat in training. This anticipation and experience of external factors is what leads to a stronger performance.
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Personal – stress that occurs outside of the sporting world can have an effect on a performance in a participant carries it with them. Personal stresses such as money, relationships and family can linger on a persons mind. This can distract them and change their mood which can often not be shaken off. An example would be a footballer who has had an affair well publicised and therefore has the added pressure to his performance on the pitch.
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Occupational – is the stress that comes with the sport. Most sports challenge the competitors by adding an element of occupational stress. For example this may be a time limit, a target area or a set of restrictions. Overcoming these occupational hazards results in a good performance, top competitors will practice specifically to combat these stresses to improve there performance. A good example would be a rugby player practising kicking under pressure by having his team mates running at him to simulate the occupational stress of the game.
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Sports environment – the sporting environment can place stress on a performance, outdoor sports are obviously at the mercy of the weather conditions. Pitches and facilities can also be affected by the sporting environment. A professional athlete will be experienced in how to combat these factors and use them to their advantage. For if a golfer is playing on a particularly wet course, the ball will skid a lot further than normal after a shot, therefore the shot must be executed to allow for this extra distance.
The effects of stress can be seen in different areas; cognitive, somatic and behavioural.
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Cognitive stress – is the stress on a performance caused by cognitive distortions of an athlete. For example over thinking, underestimating etc. The mental performance of an athlete is directly linked to the physical performance. Therefore athletes must use processes such as positive self talk to eradicate these cognitive stresses. A good example would be a goal keeper in football defending a corner, just because the ball has been crossed into the same position every time, it doesn’t mean that the play won’t be switched up the next, the defence must try to guess the play without underestimating.
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Somatic stress – is the stress placed on the body by the sport, this may be tired muscles due to the enduring nature or pain from the physical contact. A good example is cricket; if a batsman is bowled a bouncer and is struck on the hands or arm, the player must overcome the somatic stress of the physical pain to carry on playing. It is this ability to conquer the somatic pressures that professional sports look for.
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Behavioural effects of stress - the sympathetic nervous system is one of the three parts of the autonomic nervous system, along with the enteric and parasympathetic systems. Its general purpose is to mobilize the body's resources under stress; to induce the flight-or-fight response. In these types of situations, your sympathetic nervous system is called into action - it uses energy - your blood pressure increases, your heart beats faster, and digestion slows down. The parasympathetic responds when you need to rest and digest – therefore working to save energy - your blood pressure decreases, your heart beats slower, and digestion can start.
Anxiety
“Anxiety is an emotion that arises in response to a perceived but uncertain threat and arises following a period of appraisal and evaluation of coping resources.”
Anxiety is often associated with being a negative emotional state caused by stress a by product of over arousal. Anxiety can be analysed by two components cognitive and somatic:
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Cognitive anxiety – is caused by the expectations of success. For example this will usually occur before a sporting competition. The perceived outcome of the competition by the player or their surrounding environment (coaches, fans etc) can have a direct outcome on the performance. Fear of failing or underperforming, can result in a performer talking themselves into a bad performance. A good example would be a coach issuing a “must win” ultimatum to his players; this will apply a cognitive anxiety on the players that may cause them to under perform.
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Somatic anxiety – by definition is the physiological effects of increased arousal levels. When a performer climbs in arousal levels this effects the body by; sweating, clammy, and butterflies in the stomach, which are seen as negative reactions which may ultimately affect the overall performance. Anxiety is also created as these physical effects are perceived as negative. For example in formula 1 racing, a nervous driver perspiring and showing other somatic anxieties may have a negative effect on his performance and knock his confidence in the race.
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Trait anxiety – this type of anxiety is a stable aspect of personality. By definition it refers to an individual who is predisposed to regard competitive situations as stressful, usually resulting in disproportionately being anxious to a situation. This type of anxiety is not usually suitable for sportsmen unless their performance is positively affected by anxiety.
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State anxiety – can manifest itself into two forms, by definition it is the increased arousal levels when faced in certain sporting scenarios resulting in conscious feeling of nervousness and worry. Cognitive state anxiety is the moment to moment changes in worries and negative thoughts (e.g. a cricket fielder watching a ball high in the air and coming towards him). Somatic state anxiety is the moment to moment changes in perception of their level of physiological arousal (for example a basketball player who feels he’s underperforming and needs to raise his game with a score).
Arousal
Arousal can be defined as “the physiological and psychological levels of activity a sports performer experiences: on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement”.
A sporting performance can be greatly affected by the levels of arousal, which in turn is affected by physiological and psychological stress. Arousal levels can be measured by physiological responses such as, increased heart rate, blood pressure, electromyography (electrical activity produced by the skeletal muscles), sweating, blushing, and biochemical indicators such as adrenaline.
Arousal Theories:
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Drive theory is the basic model of the level of arousal equates to the quality of performance. A low level of arousal will produce a low quality of performance and vice versa. Therefore it is essential in most sports that in the warm up the competitor raise their levels of arousal to bring out an optimal performance.
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Inverted “U” theory suggests that complex tasks that require fine skill were better performed when arousal levels were low, and simple or gross tasks were performed when drive was high. A good example would be a snooker player breaking to start a game would have a high level of arousal – but contrastingly would need to lower there arousal levels for a gentle pot.
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Catastrophe theory is when high levels of physiological arousal are combined with a high state of cognitive anxiety resulting in the performer becoming over aroused and therefore underperforming. An example would be a footballer being fouled and the referee not giving a decision they wanted, this therefore over arouses and angers the player. This “losing their head” then has a direct and detrimental effect on their performance. It can be said it is therefore a fine line between optimum arousal and extreme decline which we describe as the catastrophe effect.
Effects of Arousal on Sports Performance
The effect on sport is that your arousal levels differ depending on what outcome you are willing to achieve. If your arousal levels are high, then you will be more motivated to win and if you win it will increase the meaning of that win. If your arousal levels are low then it means that you are more likely to underperform.
Arousal is both mental and physical. It is the activation of certain parts of the central nervous system that leads to physiological and behavioural changes. This can largely be affected by a state somatic anxiety. Your state somatic anxiety is the anxiety bought about through bodily arousal in relation to performance. This can be due to an athlete's high trait anxiety, the importance of the situation of the uncertainty of the outcome.
The level of arousal an athlete desires to perform is often referred to as being in the zone, or optimal arousal. Optimal arousal will varies from event to event and person to person, but it is said that an athlete at optimal arousal will perform their best in the situation. Athletes whom are under aroused will have a reduced level of performance and outcomes, similarly an athlete too aroused will have trouble focusing on the skills and techniques they need to perform, thus providing a less than satisfactory effort. This under arousal, optimal arousal and over arousal is referred to as the inverted U hypothesis (see diagrams before).
There are many variables which will affect an athlete achieving their optimal arousal levels:
- Motivation is what encourages an athlete to act in a particular way; it is the drive that keeps a person striving for success. This can take the form of positive or negative and can be intrinsic (comes from within) of extrinsic (comes from the outside).
- Self esteem can affect their performance if they don’t believe in their abilities
- Expectation can add pressure to a performance if they are required to produce results for a team, manager etc
- Standard of competition can affect an athletes performance positively and negatively – poor opposition can lead to an athlete underperforming to their levels, vice versa athletes usually raise their own performance levels when the competition is of a higher standard
- Impact of the environmental factors such as track or pitch conditions and weather can affect an athlete’s performance mentally
- Spectator support – booing and cheering can improve or decline arousal levels depending on how the performer reacts
- Ability of coach of support team to motivate
It is important for the person to recognize these types of factors and address them through an effective use of managing anxiety skills. Ways to improve arousal levels across a wide range of sports include:
Concentration - the ability to link movement and awareness to focus on what you are doing. This can often include looking at “self one and self two”. Self one is the instructive mechanisms on how to perform the task and self two is how you execute the task in relation to self one.
Mental rehearsal - mentally picturing your performance, the perfect stroke, the perfect shot etc. This helps to elevate your arousal but control this energy towards a clear objective. This requires lots of rehearsal, positive motivation and practice.
Relaxation - this is used to help your not become over aroused and can include deep muscle relaxation, music etc, to help control the body's automatic nervous system.
Benjamin McGee
BTEC Sport