9th April 2008
From the information above you can see that Prozone's services and products are extremely valuable in today's sporting world. The level of analysis their products can go in to is extraordinary and allows coaches to plan and carry out more detailed and successful training sessions. Prozone allows players and teams to prepare better for matches and increase their peformance, however there are other technological developments which take a more active role during the game rather than before it.
High speed cameras such as Hawkeye are not widely used within sport, most commonly in cricket and tennis, however is also used within snooker and making an introduction into football.
Hawkeye was first developed in 1999 and since has received many awards such as 'Best Technology' and even a 'BAFTA'. It was not implemented into sport however, until 2001 where channel 4 used it in their coverage of the Ashes. This was shortly followed by the use of Hawkeye in tennis in february 2002, where it was used at the BBC's Davis Cup.
'Hawk-Eye is the most sophisticated officiating tool used in any sport. It is accurate, reliable and practical: fans now expect and demand it to be a part of every event.'
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Hawkeye allows for correct officiating decisions to be made and also allows for spectators to see exactly what the ball was doing.
Cricket
Hawkeye is well known with the cricketing world and is used with many nations including, England, Australia, South Africa, India, West Indies, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. It was also used in the ICC Champions Cup in 2006 and the World Cup 2007 held in the West Indies. However, Hawkeye is not yet used officially by the ICC so it is only incorporated into cricketing broadcasts by the commentators and not by the 3rd umpire. The commentators use it to determine if a LBW shout should have been given and whether a player would be 'in' or 'out' according to the direction and path of the ball.
Hawkeye is used for many statistics within cricket, including:
LBW – Did the ball pitch in line? - Did the ball hit the batsman in line?
- Would the ball have hit the stumps? This picture represents what hawkeye shows to answer these questions.
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Wagon Wheels – Hawkeye allows for a picture to be determined of where the balls have been hit to and how many runs was gained off them. It can be placed on a realistic or virtual background and each coloured line represents how many runs each ball was worth. This can be done for an individual or the whole team, over different periods of time, for example a broadcaster may display a Wagon Wheel for an individual for a particular over or the whole test match.
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Pitch Maps – This is where Hawkeye shows when the bowler has pitched each ball. It allows viewers to see any consistencies a bowler has and whether they are bowling more expensive balls than good. With further development Hawkeye can now split it's screen so that a picture can be seen of both their bowling around the wicket and over the wicket simultaneously. The colour of the ball changes depending on how many runs the bowler conceded off the batter.
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Railcam & Ball Speeds – This is a side on view of the delivery, which shows speed, bounce and delivery. It also enables us to make comparisons between different deliveries, for example a wicket ball compared to the previous delivery.
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The use of Hawkeye in cricket is very interesting and reliable, however the majority of calls needed to be made by the 3rd umpire can usually be determined by slowing down replays of the actual game. As a result Hawkeye, at the moment will continue to be used for viewers pleasure than players benefit during a game. However, Hawkeye has started to be used for the coaching of cricket with products including a tracking system and video replay system.
Tracking System
This provides vasts amount of information by using high speed vision processing cameras to track the ball from the bowlers hand to the batsman. Data which is calculated is as follows:
- Speed of the ball
- Reaction time of the batsman
- Swing on the ball between the bowlers hand and where it is pitched
- Where the ball is pitched
- Where the ball is bowled from
- How much bounce the ball had
- Whether the ball was seam or spin and how much it deviated from where it was pitched
- A prediction of where the ball would have passed the stumps
With this information to look at a coach can develop sessions specific to areas of weakness within an individual to help them improve. The use of Hawkeye in this way could become extremely beneficial to cricketers today.
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Video Replay System
This product provides the answers to why a cricketer has performed in a certain way. It uses a number of video replay cameras in order to provide biomechanical analysis from various angles which can be replayed to show an individual how they are performing. The Video Replay System is very technical, which is why it is one the best coaching aids a team can have. 10th April 2008
Tennis
Hawkeye, having passed many validity and reliability tests provided by the ITF, is now used within tennis as an extremely useful officiating system. It went through many thorough, stringent tests in which Hawkeye made the correct call 100% of the time and only had an error margin of 3.6mm. Hawkeye was tested in numerous conditions including, wind, bright sunlight, shadows, dark overcast and artificial floodlights to ensure it was accurate and reliable in all situations.
Hawkeye is not only used for officiating decisions but for the interest and statistical value it has to the viewers of tennis. For example, it allows the commentators to analyse calls which are not challenged and provide many statistical facts throughout the game. Hawkeye can be used to:
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Determine where the return ball lands, either after a first or second serve.
- Where the ball lands after a serve, whether it was a first or second serve and whether it was an ace.
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The replay of a winning ball and what speed it travelled at.
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Where Hawkeye is implemented in the game, it is used sensibly so that it does not take over and interrupt the game. The majority of decisions are called by the officials without the use of he Hawkeye and the players only have 2 incorrect challenges per set, however if they are correct then it still stays at 2.
Like cricket, Hawkeye is also used for coaching tennis. The tennis coaching system contains a ball tracking technology which allows for in depth analysis of individual rallies, strokes and match play, allowing the individual to determine how they are playing and why.
Football
The use of cameras and technology such as Hawkeye, within football has long been debated. However in 2006 it was introduced at Fulham's ground, Cravan Cottage, in the goal mouth of the Putney End. Having real live footage to work with from a football game enabled the software development team to make any changes or advancements needed to use Hawkeye within football.
There have been a few condition which Hawkeye has been stipulated to meet which include that the error margin must be no greater than 5mm and the information it detects must be conveyed rapidly to the officials. Hawkeye has exceeded both of these with an error margin of only 3.6mm and the ability to deliver information to the referee within 0.5seconds.
The use of Hawkeye within football is quite complex, however very efficient and good at its job. Hawkeye detects whether the ball has gone of the line of the goal mouth and into the 3D area of the goal, therefore if it crossed the line but was over the crossbar no signal would be sent to the referee. There are numerous cameras placed within the goal mouth, to compensate for players getting in way. These cameras can also detect whether the ball has crossed the line even if they can only see 25% of the ball or if it has only crossed for a fraction of a second.
As Hawkeye reacts almost instantly the time taken for a decision to be made is irrelevant and the game will not be interrupted as many people tend to think. This technology will remove any retributions from the game and save time from player's arguing their case, in scenarios like these:
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Equipment and clothing has also advanced as the years have gone by. Football boots are constantly being modified to make them more appealing to player's today, the same with the materials used for playing and training kits.
Football Boots
Football boots used to be made entirely out of leather, even the studs! These would become extremely wet and heavy making it difficult for the players to run fast and control the ball. These remained unchanged however, until after the second world war, where producers of boots started to emerge. We live in a world now where everyone wants the next best thing, it has to be better, more advanced and more original than any other product in the market. Football boots have become very much the same.
Since 2000 many styles of boots have been created which approach the game at a slightly different angle. For example in 2002, Nomis Wet technology created the sticky boot:
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We have recently seen a rise in the number of injuries caused due to the lack of protection from the football boots, e.g. Broken metatarsals. With companies aiming to get boots as light as possible layers of material which would usually protect the foot are left off, this can result in numerous injuries in the slightest of tackles. Whilst the use of advanced systems and technologies has helped increase performance the risk of injury has also been increasing which could do more damage to the players than good. At the moment it is up to the player what types of boot they use, but if injuries become more frequent as a result of unprotected boots then it may be necessary for the FA to apply certain requirements.
Clothing
Many areas of clothing have been improved within sport such as waterproofs, swim wear, thermal tops and running outfits. Whilst some are for comfort, e.g. Thermal tops help trap air to keep the body warm when performing in the cold, others have been created to enhance sporting performance by reducing factors such as air resistance.
One of the most advancing sports clothing ranges is Climacool, a material and product used by Adidas. Adidas wanted to produce the most efficient clothing wear for athletes and in order to
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do so used infrared cameras to map on an athletes body the most critical heat and sweat zones. By doing this they were then able to transfer their material technologies to the appropriate areas in order to keep the athletes body cool and dry.
Climacool is made from 3D fabrics which contains channels and moisture wicking properties so that air can circulate and moisture and heat can be dissipated. With such properties Climacool can actually keep an athlete cooler than if they were wearing nothing.
Climacool is also now used within Adidas’ footwear. Again through testing they were able to determine where the air moves around an athlete’s in order to place ventilation channels in the appropriate places. Such air channels allow for the foot to keep cool when exercising and maximise air velocity around the foot. Alongside this Climacool shoes have a breathable upper mesh and surround so that air can flow in at 360°s at any sweat can be wicked away easily. Such technology provides a 40% increase in cooling of the foot when exercising compared to a normal sports trainer, which is pretty much like wearing no shoes at all.
With the aid of technology a person can remain cool without using the normal physiological adaptations as much. With reducing sweating a person will not become dehydrated as quickly which will help an individual as performance is not hindered by:
- water being taken from the blood and therefore blood volume decreasing
- water taken from the blood also increases its viscosity making it harder for the heart to pump blood around the body, therefore the heart rate has to increase
- electrolytes being lost which can affect an individual coordination
- calcium and potassium levels decrease which can reduce a persons strength as not as many actin and myosin fibres can be recruited.
Therefore materials technology has helped enhance an athlete’s performance, which brings about the debate of whether it should be used. I.e. if this technology is not available to every athlete then is it fair for anyone to wear it as others will be gaining a slight advantage?
Task 2
Anyone who reckons Paula Radcliffe only has to turn up in Athens to win Olympic marathon gold had better think again.'
12th April 2008
This is a quote taken from the BBC sport website on a report about heat chambers which athlete's use in order to help them cope with extreme temperatures when performing.
It is extremely important athlete’s and player’s acclimatise to certain temperatures before going an officially competing in them, as otherwise their body’s will not be able to cope with the stress and they will not be able to carry on. A few years ago the only ways to acclimatise to the heat would to be going out there and training in it, which inevitably cost an athlete in time and money or wearing more clothing with reduced vapour permeability.
However, it is now possible for athlete’s to train in heat chambers, where the temperature can be steadily increased until they are exercising in the heat that is likely at an upcoming competition. This allows for gradual acclimatisation as opposed to just being placed in extremely high temperatures which could cause heat related illnesses.
There are a few physiological changes which occur as a result of heat acclimatisation:
- reduced heart rate (at a given speed or power)
- drop in core body temperature during exercise in the heat
- increase in the rate of sweating when exercising
- sweating occurs earlier on during exercise
- decrease in blood flow to the skin;
- increased blood flow to the working muscles; and
- lower skin temperatures
Even though these adaptations which allow an athlete to perform better in a hot environment, it will not be identical to performing in a cooler environment and therefore it is necessary they adapt their pace or tactics to allow them to complete the event.
It is has been identified that the majority of athletes that train for several hours a day will have accumulated the physiological adaptations within two weeks. It has also been noted that there seem to be two distinct phases within heat acclimatisation:
- Phase one (3 -7 days) – cardiovascular functions will adapt such as an increase in blood plasma volume and reduction in resting and exercising heart rate.
- Phase 2 (1-2 weeks) – there will be thermoregulatory changes that increase an individuals ability to sweat more and decrease blood flow to the skin during exercise.
As quickly as these physiological adaptations occur they can disappear, therefore it is extremely important that an individual performs in the even within 5-7 days after heat acclimatisation.
Peak Performance, Training and Nutritional Strategies for Sport, Hawley and Burke, 1998, Pages 175-176
So how do heat chambers work? Heat chambers are usually walk in rooms which contain equipment such as rowing machines, cycling machines and treadmills. The temperature and humidity can be changed and can range from -40°c to +50°c and from 5%RH to 98%RH. Therefore all situations can be accounted for and it is also possible to slowly acclimatise rather than just training at one specific heat. Normally exercise will increase in intensity and length so maybe advancing from 1 hr a day at a lower temperature to 3-4hrs with a high temperature of 45°c.
Companies install heat chambers which cater exactly for the clubs, teams or individual’s needs which make training for upcoming events in the heat easier and preparation for the event can start early.
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Another technological advancement which has helped athletes is the development of oxygen chambers. Oxygen is seen as an extremely important part in the repair and healing of injuries as it aids the respiration of cells and their growth. Therefore by using oxygen chambers it is believed that an injury will heal quicker; this particular therapy has been used my many professionals such as Wayne Rooney and cricketer Simon Jones in order to overcome their injuries in time for important events. Hyperbaric oxygen chambers work by:
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Saturating the patients blood with oxygen by allowing them to breath in pure oxygen (as opposed to 21% contained in normal air)
- This excess in oxygen dissolves in to the blood plasma which directly increases oxygen tension in hypoxic areas (oxygen depleted areas)
- White blood cell activity is enhanced around the area of injury
- Also causes vasoconstriction in order to prevent edema surrounding the injury
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Oxygen chambers can also be used to help with altitude training and general cardiovascular endurance. It is known that if an individual is exposed to depleted levels of oxygen the body attempts to relieve these stresses by producing more red blood cells. More red blood cells mean that there is more haemoglobin for oxygen to bind with when exposed to normal conditions. Having more oxygen allows for more efficient aerobic respiration which produces ATP and supplies energy for the working muscles; more energy means increased performance. Such affects can be seen by comparing the great cyclists Lance Armstrong and Miguel Indurain with the average man:
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It is clear to see that the cyclists are much better aided when it comes to sporting performance due to their increased physiological adaptations.
Such technological advancements has its benefits like being able to reduce the recovery period after an injury or being able to prepare better for upcoming events. However it does invite the question about whether it is fair if not all professionals have it available to them.
Task 3
A long with sports equipment, materials, aids etc. sports tests have also advanced as a result of scientific and technological developments. These days there are quite a few however I will look at the advancements in:
- Power Test – Sergeant jump to Wingate
- Body Composition – Skin Folds to Hydrostatic Weighing
In order to find out the power of an athlete’s legs you can use the Wingate test, however this is only available due to advancements in technology and the original way used to involve performing sergeant jump.
The Wingate test involves an individual performing on a braked cycle ergometer in order to determine their anaerobic power. First of all the athlete will pedal for an initial 3 seconds where no resistance is applied to the pedals, then a fixed resistance will be added for a following 30 seconds where they must pedal at their maximum capability. As the athlete pedals a mechanical counter counts the flywheel revolutions at periods of every 5 seconds.
The resistance applied must be specific to the individual so in order to calculate this they use the following equation and values:
- Female - Body weight (kg) x 0.075kg/ e.g. 70 x 0.075 = 5.25kg resistance applied to the bike ergometers flywheel.
- Male – Body weight (kg) x 0.092kg/ e.g. 90 x 0.092 = 8.25kg resistance applied to the bike ergometers flywheel.
The wingate test produces enough data for many calculations to be done these include:
- Peak Power Output (PP) – This is the highest power output which is taken from the first 5 seconds of exercise. It allows us to see how much energy can be produced by the immediate energy system, in this case ATP/PC. It is calculated by:
PP = Force x distance/time
In terms of this equation distance is determined by multiplying the number of revolutions by the distance of each revolution. The calculation must also be divided by the time in minutes, therefore 5 seconds in terms of minutes equals 0.0833.
In order to determine whether this result is any good it must be compared to previous results. A table has been produced so that a comparison can be easily made:
- Relative Peak Output (RPP) – this is the peak power output in relation to the individual’s body mass. This is calculated by:
RPP = PP/body weight (kg)
This result can also be used to compare by using a table:
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- Anaerobic fatigue (AF) – this represents the anaerobic’s system total ability to produce ATP and supply energy. The calculation provides the percentage decline in power output and is calculated as follows:
AF = ((Highest 5 sec PP - Lowest 5 sec PP)/ (Highest 5 sec PP)) x 100
- Anaerobic capacity (AC) – this is the total work completed during the 30 seconds and is calculated as follows:
AC = Adding up each 5 second PP
It is easy to see that the wingate test provides multiple interesting pieces of data, however it will only be reliable and a true representation of anaerobic power if the test is conducted correctly and the individual commits to putting 100% effort in. The wingate test is extremely valid where it allows the coach to know an individual’s peak anaerobic power, total anaerobic capacity and their anaerobic fatigue. This information allows a coach to monitor the athlete’s progress in training and the status of their fitness.
This picture shows the type of graph given off after performing the wingate.
There are several advantages and disadvantages to the wingate including:
- Non-invasive, so it is quick and painless for the athlete
- Measures exactly what it supposed too – muscular performance rather than any indirect variables including biomechanical and physiological
- Can be used on all types of people including children and the disabled
- The possibility of achieving similar result after test-retest are very good due to the test being reliable and valid
- Extremely accurate with timing
- Personal data is entered into the computer so the calculations are done on the computer reducing the time and increasing accuracy
- Unfortunately in order to start the test once maximal pedalling has been achieved a lever must be pulled and unless done at exactly the right time results may be invalid
- Directing the test requires experience therefore only certain individual’s may be able to do it and not available all the time
- It can take up to 90mins for the full test to be complete, including a warm up, test, cool down an consultation
- The wingate is an expensive piece of equipment so not that cost effective
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The skin fold is a very commonly used test to estimate body fat. It involves locating between 3 and 9 anatomical locations on the body and using callipers to determine the measurement. This method of testing is not valid in terms of accurate body fat percentage but can be used to identify any changes to the body over a period of time. As each person will measure a skin fold slightly differently results will vary which means they are not always reliable. 17th April 2008
‘Archimedes' principle, principle that states that a body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.’
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It is now possible to use underwater weighing to determine an individual’s body composition and is based on Archimedes principle which is quoted above. It works due to bone and muscle being denser than water; therefore if a person with little fat was placed underwater they would weigh more and have a lower percentage body fat compared to an individual who contained a large amount of fat mass. Someone with a bigger fat mass would weight lighter in the water and therefore have a higher body fat percentage.
If the director of the test follows the correct guidelines for hydrostatic weighing and the athlete exhales all their air before entering the water then there will only be a ± 1.5% error.
The main advantage of the hydrostatic weighing machine is that its extremely valid and reliable as test-retest results have proved consistent. It is also a relatively cheap test to get done varying from anything between £5 and £30.
However, at the moment there are several disadvantages including:
- The test requires a lot of equipment and a lot of space
- It takes a long time to prepare and perform the test
- A highly experienced director is needed to carry out the test and calculate the results
- It is not the most comfortable of tests as some people can become anxious and claustrophobic about being submerged in water.
At the moment hydrostatic weighing machines are usually found at Sporting universities/colleges and research centres, making them quite easy to get to. 17th April 2008
