The Joys of Learning
Task 1
Learning - The process by which relatively permanent changes occur in behavioral potential as a result of experience. (Anderson)
A process that "builds on or modifies understanding, capacities, abilities, attitudes and propensities in the individual." (Inglis, Ling, & Joosten (1999) p. 104-105)
Above are two definitions of learning, in general learning is a process where we gain a better understanding or new abilities from experience. There are different learning theories about how we actually gain our knowledge and skill.
Cognitive theories
Cognitive theories of learning are about thinking and understanding rather than connecting certain stimuli to certain responses. Cognitive theories look at individuals and how they can learn theories. It is sometimes known as insight learning. In cognitive theories we get our information from our surroundings and work out what has happened using our long and short-term memories as well a previous knowledge and general understanding. Gestaltists believe that learning can be explained better if we look at the parts which make up the whole, rather than looking at the parts separately outside the whole experience.
(Adopted from Stafford-Brown et al)
The Gestalt theory put forward that an individual's perception of stimuli has an affect on their response. If two individuals are exposed to identical stimuli, their reactions to it would be different, depending on their past experiences. This was demonstrated in a study showing subjects chess pieces on a game board. They were shown the board briefly and asked to reconstruct what they saw. They were allowed successive brief looks at the board until they were able to reconstruct the entire board. The study found that experienced chess players did better than inexperienced subjects, when the pieces were situated in a way that resembled an actual game, than if the pieces were placed in a random order (Cook, 1993)
The Gestalt theory hypothesizes that individuals use insight when solving a problem or determining their response to stimuli. Wolfgang Kohler used his observations of chimpanzees to formulate his ideas on insight. Food was placed out of the chimpanzee's reach while objects such as sticks were place in their reach. Kohler observed the monkeys while they attempted to reach the food. He observed that some of the apes learned more quickly than others. In addition, although the monkeys used trial and error to reach the food, their attempts were not consistent and regular as you may expect if they were basing their attempts on the reinforcement of a prior attempt. Nor were there attempts random, but Kohler believed that the chimpanzees used their prior attempts to determine their next attempt. Kohler theorized that the monkeys used insight to solve the problem (Blosser 1973).
We could adopt the cognitive theory to coaching an individual a skill. For example swimming, Gestaltists would let the person swim from one end to the other how ever they liked. Eventually the person would find a method to complete the task using insight, and then they would become more skilled and faster.
Associate theories
Associate theories of learning are completely different to the cognitive theory of learning as associative relates to connecting stimulus to response. "These theories are often referred to as Stimulus-response theories or theories of association; where the out come or product ...
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We could adopt the cognitive theory to coaching an individual a skill. For example swimming, Gestaltists would let the person swim from one end to the other how ever they liked. Eventually the person would find a method to complete the task using insight, and then they would become more skilled and faster.
Associate theories
Associate theories of learning are completely different to the cognitive theory of learning as associative relates to connecting stimulus to response. "These theories are often referred to as Stimulus-response theories or theories of association; where the out come or product was more important than the process.(Wesson et al 2000 page 497)
Classical conditioning was carried out by a Russian physiologist called Pavlov; Pavlov repeatedly presented a dog with food following the ringing of a bell. When the bell sounded without the presentation of food, the dog would still respond to the bell as if it were food. Pavlov collected the dogs' saliva and found that the amount of saliva produced by bell ringing increased as the dogs were more frequently exposed to the coupling of food presentation and bell ringing. The dog had learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. Pavlov called the food an unconditional stimulus, or UCS, because the dog's normal reaction would be to salivate at the presentation of food. The bell he termed the conditional stimulus, or CS, because response to the bell was conditional upon the Association between the bell and food. For the same reasons, salivation in response to food was labelled the unconditional response, or UCR, while salivation in response to the bell was called the conditional response, or CR. Conditioning the dog to salivate at the sound of the bell occurred as a result of a contingency between the UCS and the CS
(Wesson et al 2000 page 497)
This theory can be applied to sport by adapting it to the athlete's behaviour when conditioned by a coach. The coach can condition an athlete to produce a certain response with the presentation of a certain stimulus. Like if a badminton coach wants to teach their player to perform a drop shot at the net, the coach will set up the situation so the stimulus to the shot is consistently presented. Through practice the learner discovers when to produce the conditioned response. It can also be use to teach people how to relax.
(Adopted from Stafford-brown et al 2003 page 128)
Task 2
Open and closed- loop theories of learning
The open and closed- loop theories relate to the importance of feedback in learning. Open- loop control refers to the absence of feedback in the learning process, while closed- loop control refers to the presence of feed back. (Stafford-Brown et al p132)
Open-Loop control
(http://www.longroad.ac.uk/accreditation/subject_physical_education/acquisition_skill/motor_control/loop_theory.htm)
In the open loop theory, no feedback is available to the performer; this is because some movements will occur too quickly for feedback to be recorded or to be of any benefit. This is very important in sport when relating this to skill. An example of this could be a golf swing, the movement is very fast and gross that the player will not be able to receive feedback while performing the swing. The only feedback they will get is the outcome of the shot.
Closed-Loop theory
(http://www.longroad.ac.uk/accreditation/subject_physical_education/acquisition_skill/motor_control/loop_theory.htm)
The closed loop theory is different, as feedback is available. Closed loop theory is used in sport as when mistakes are made; we can provide feedback on how we made the mistake. Feedback is essential to the learning process; we get the feedback either intrinsically or extrinsically.
An example of when we might use feedback during the skill could be a forward role in gymnastics, while the performer is performing the role they will have intrinsic feedback, and they can adjust their position to correct it.
Task 3
Fitts and Posner (1967) are two American psychologists who set out the changes and phases that learners pass thought in order to acquire a skill. They proposed that there are three stages to learning a new skill.
(Adopted from Stafford-Brown et al p132)
. Cognitive
2. Associative
3. Autonomous
The cognitive stage
The Cognitive stage is the understanding of what to do and how they do it. This process relies on mental and cognitive processes. When learning a skill, there are several routines that they will follow in order to grasp the skill to move on the associative stage. A sporting example would be a tennis serve, the person learning would:
. Position the feet correctly
2. Make sure they are holding the racket correctly.
3. position the throwing up hand
4. position the racket hand
5. throw the ball up straight
6. bend knees, look at target
7. swing for the ball
8. aim to get the ball in the serving area and over the net
9. follow through the serve
0. be ready for the return
This is the beginner's stage of learning the skill; lots of mistakes will be made, and it probably won't reach the serving area. If this happens the teacher needs to correct them offering them lots of feedback on how to do it correctly. This can include demonstrations so the learner will have a clear understanding. The learner then needs to learn how to feel the movements.
(Adopted from Stafford-Brown et al p132)
The associative stage
The associative stage is the next stage, once basic understanding and techniques of the skill has been acquired. The learner can enter a period of extended practice to reduce their mistakes. There should be fewer gross errors, such as not timing the skill correctly. Tactics will then start to develop, and can be applied to real situations. This will help the learner to analyze their own performance and to detect and correct their own errors. There is an obvious change in the performance characteristics as the basics are already in the memory. The associative stage can be a long process and the learner may never reach the third stage. If the skill is repeated and practiced regularly then it could move on to the third stage which is the autonomous stage.
(Adopted from Stafford-Brown et al p132)
The autonomous stage
The autonomous stage is the experienced stage, where the performer can produce the skill automatically, without conscious control of the production of the movement. The performance will be consistent and very few errors if any will be made. They will have control over their skills, for example the tennis player will not only be able to complete a sound serve but be able to place the serve to make it difficult for the opponent to return. The performer will now be able to process information easily, which will quicken the decision making and will give a quicker response. They will also be able to seek out relevant clues and signals from the environment, which will help decision making and have quicker responses.
Small improvements can still be made in terms of style and approach as well as other physiological aspects of performance.
Task 4
The transfer of learning is so basic to learning that we almost assume it occurs. It is based on the theory that certain aspects of a skill learnt in one situation can influence performance in another. For example if you can shoot in netball, you can shoot in basketball. Singer (1982) refers to this as 'relating then with now" (Stafford-Brown et al p136)
"The transfer of performance and learning from one situation to another has been an essential element of organisational and instructional approaches for many years."
(Wesson et al 1998 page 528)
There are different types of transfer that can occur-
Positive- transfer is when a skill that has been learned help to learn other new skills. It is important with transfer if a teacher ensures that practice situations are realistic, as it has effects on the stimuli and response
Negative- transfer is where one skill inhibits another skill. The effects of negative transfer are limited and certainly temporary, it happens when a performer is required to produce a new response in a situation. This is where a performer has to adjust to the situation using the similar stimulus, but different responses.
Zero- transfer is when one skill has no effect on the performance of another skill.
Further classifications of skills where categorised by Stallings (1982)
Skill to Skill- This occurs between two similar skills
Practice to Performance- For skills to be of any use, they must be transferred from practise to a game situation.
Abilities to Skills- The performance of skills is based on the abilities which underpin the skills. To be effective in performing a skill we have to transfer our relevant abilities to the skill.
Bilateral Transfer- Transfer of learning occurs between limbs. This may be from hand to hand, or leg to leg,. Transfer usually occurs between opposite limbs.
Stage to Stage- The development of motor skills is dependent on building new skills on those learned previously.
Principles to skills- When a skill is learnt, we also learn the principle of the skill. For example timing and technique
(Stafford-Brown et al p137)
Examples of transfer are-
Badminton and squash- positive transfer occurs between these two sports because they both involve hitting a ball, which involve the same skills and abilities (hand to eye co-ordination), also both shots are played with a flexible wrist.
Badminton and tennis- Negative transfer occurs between these two sports of how the shot is played. In badminton the shot is a fairly fine skill, involving a flick of the wrist. Whereas in tennis it is a gross movement using the forearm.
Indoor football and outdoor football- Positive transfer occurs between these two activities because they are generally the same game but played in a different environment. The same skills are used so we also see skill to skill transfer.
Rugby and basketball- These two sports have zero transfer as the skills from one sport cannot help or effect a skill in the other. But Positive transfer can occur in these two sports are they both involve similar aspects, such as creating space. Also negative transfer could occur as rugby is a contact sport and basketball is non-contact, also the ball can not be passed forward in rugby. But proper explanation of the rules should avoid this.
Horse riding are hockey- zero transfer occurs between these two sorts as they have nothing in common.
Trampolining are high board diving- Positive transfer will occur between these two sports as they both involve acrobatics. All the skills needed to twist and turn can be positively transfer to one another.
BIBIOGRAPHY
Wesson, k. Wiggins, N. Thompson, G. Hartigan, S. Sport and PE 2000 hodder and stoughton
Stafford-Brown, J. Rea, S. Chance, J. sport and exercise science 2003 hodder and stoughton
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