what kind of teaching styles, skill, practice conditions and guidance coaches, instructors and teachers choose so it fits with the right athlete.

AS and A Level Physical Education (Sport & Coaching)

BTEC National Award in Sport & Exercise Science Priya Sethi

Skill Acquisition

BTEC Sport and Exercise Science Project

Assignment 1: The Ideal Learning Environment

Introduction

The purpose of this assignment is to see what kind of teaching styles, skill, practice conditions and guidance coaches, instructors and teachers choose so it fits with the right athlete. I am going to look at the different teaching styles and what they mean and how it is done. This is so when a subject is coaching, teaching or instructing for the first time they know how to choose the right method for the right person.

Presentation of skill

Part – The part method is often used when the skill is low in organisation and can be split up into sub-routines. If the skill is complex this method is useful because it allows the performer to make sense of the skill and to achieve initial success with basic movements before progressing to the more complex movements. Part practices can also be useful in learning a dangerous skill. The performer can gain confidence by learning each element of the skill separately and then, when the separate parts are brought together, the performer will have a better idea of the technique involved and be more confident of success. This practice technique is particularly useful when trying to teach serial skills.

Whole – In the whole method a skill is taught without breaking it down into sub-routines or parts. If possible this method should be employed more than any other because the player experiences the true feel for the skill and transfers from practice to the real situation is likely to be positive. The player is also likely to execute the skill fluently and can appreciate the relationships between each party of the movement. If a task is rapid or ballistic in action, the whole method of teaching is best because the components of the skill interact closely with one another. The golf swing is a good example of this. For the swing to be effective the action as a whole must be practiced because each part of the swing interacts closely with the next.

Whole-part-whole – In the whole-part-whole method a skill is taught without breaking it down and then later broken down into sub-routines and then joined all together again. This is so when doing the skill as a whole if anyone is finding it difficult they can break the skill down and learn that way and when confident enough do it as a whole again.

Progressive Part – This is often referred to as ‘chaining’ in the teaching of skills. The skill usually serial in nature, is broken down into sub-routines which are thought of as the links of a chain. The performer learns one link at a time, and then adds on a second link. The performer practices the two links together, then adds on a third link and so on, till the links can be practiced together as a whole. Many skills are best practiced using a mixture of part and whole methods. For instance, a performer may well benefit from ...

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Progressive Part – This is often referred to as ‘chaining’ in the teaching of skills. The skill usually serial in nature, is broken down into sub-routines which are thought of as the links of a chain. The performer learns one link at a time, and then adds on a second link. The performer practices the two links together, then adds on a third link and so on, till the links can be practiced together as a whole. Many skills are best practiced using a mixture of part and whole methods. For instance, a performer may well benefit from trying out the skill as a whole to get the idea of the complete movement and to understand the interrelationships between the various components. Each component could be practiced separately and the skill then brought together and preformed as a whole. This mixture of methods highlights weak areas which can be isolated for more intensive practices.

Practice conditions

Variable – Practice needs to be varied so that the performer can come into contact with a range of experiences. Relevant experiences are stored in the long term memory and can be used to modify motor programmes in the future. With closed skills it is important that practice conditions closely resemble the true life situation. Stimuli that are irrelevant to the closed skill should be varied but those that are relevant should not be varied. With open skills, each situation will be different from the last. The conditions, unlike those in closed skills, are not constant. It is essential, therefore, that practice involves many different situations so that the performer can draw from the strategies in long term memory that he or she has learned in previous practice

Mass & Distributed – The structure of the practice session is important when considering the most effective way of teaching skills. There are many different definitions of what is meant by masses and distributed practice but we will take massed practice to mean practice that involves very short, or no, rest intervals within the practice session. Massed practice, then, is a continuous practice period. Distributed practice involves relatively long rests between trails. The rest intervals could involve tasks that are unrelated to the main practice activity for example, between basketball drills players could go and play table tennis. It is important to remember the theory of transfer these rest periods should not involve activities which could lead to negative transfer. Many performers particularly the experienced ones, use the intervals between activities to practice mental rehearsal, the effects of which have already been discussed. Research has shown that distributed practice is generally best because massed practice can lead to poor performance and hinder the learning process because of fatigue and demotivation. Massed practice may help learning of discrete skills which are relatively short in duration but distributed practice id best for learning continuous skills because the player rapidly becomes tired. With tasks that are potentially dangerous distributed practice is also best because it ensures that physical and mental fatigue does negatively affect performance and put the performer in danger.

Mental Training – Mental training is a mental or cognitive rehearsal of a skill without actual physical movement taking place. This is used by many top level sportsmen to visualise a skill or movement. It is often prompted by tape/film from the coach. This is used to review good practice and to compare it is a bad practice. It is also used to avoid dangerous situations and risks and to focus their attention on a particular skill or movement.

Over Learning – The word over learning suggests that this is a negative concept but it is usually positive, although in some situations it can be negative to skill acquisition. Over learning is extremely helpful in retention and retrieval of the information needed to perform motor skills. The definition that is often used for over learning is ‘the practical time spent beyond the amount of practice time needed to achieve success’. This extra practice time can help to strengthen motor programmes and schema. If a skill has been learned so well that it is almost automatic, a performer can concentrate on other variables. For instance, a basketball player may have learned to dribble so well that he or she can direct attention to other aspects of the game such as the position of colleagues and opponents. There is, however, an optimal level or practice too much practice could result in demotivation and fatigue. The teacher or coach must ensure that good performers stay in autonomous phase of learning by rehearsing skills, but must also be aware of the plateau effect and the cost of doing to much.

Teaching style(s)

Mosston & Ashworths

Command Style (style A)

Command style is a motor skill acquisition this is where the teacher makes all decisions the performers response to the stimulus is immediate so is there performance and it is as accurate as it can be. It is a synchronized performance when a group is involved. An example would be performing a somersault on a trampoline.

Practice Style (style B)

Practice style is a motor skill development this is where the students carry out teacher-prescribed tasks. This is where they go away and work individually or as a group to a set time and then later given feedback individually and privately. An example would be groups of four practicing penalties in football.

Reciprocal Style (style C)

Reciprocal Style is where you observe and analysis. Students work in pairs where one performs and the other provides feedback. They then follow the criteria for performance and feedback which is designed by the teacher. An example would be practicing shots in basketball in twos.

Self-Check Style (style D)

Self check style is where students assess their own performance against criteria. An example would be shot putt in athletics. Success criteria on a teaching card.

Inclusion Style (style E)

Inclusion style is where teachers plan a task designed for different degrees of difficulty and the student monitors their own work. An example would be using hurdles set at different heights & distances.

Guided Discovery Style (style F)

Guided discovery style is a discovering learning. Students solve problems which are set by the teacher with assistance. An example would be students try different start positions for the forward roll in gymnastics.

Divergent Style (style G)

Divergent style is about independent thinking, confidence and group work. Students solve problems without assistance from the teacher. An example would be devising a new co-operative game using a range of equipment.

Individual Program - Learner's Design (style H)

Individual program is a planning style. Teacher determines content. Student plans the programme. An example would be making individual decisions about a dance routine

Learner Initiated Style (style I)

Learning initiated style is a selection and application also personal responsibility where students their plan own programme and the teacher is the advisor. An example would be Discussion with teacher/tutor about research topic.

Self-Teaching Style (style J)

Self teaching style is a style where you can understand and be independent. Student takes full responsibility for the learning process. An example would be little application to PE in schools.

Guidance

Verbal – This is often associated with visual guidance, being used to describe the action and explain how to perform the activity. Verbal guidance has limitations if used on its own motor skills are very difficult to describe without a demonstration of some kind. The instructor is trying to create an image in the learner’s mind of what needs to be done. Verbal guidance of the more advanced performer is effective when the more perceptual information, such as tactics or positional play, needs to be conveyed.

Visual – Visual guidance is widely used when teaching motor skills. During the cognitive phase of skill leaning visual guidance helps the learner develop a mental image of what needs to be done. Some instructors use videos, charts or other visual aids to build up the ideal picture of what is required to successfully perform a new skill. The demonstration must be accurate so that there is no possibility of the learner building up an incorrect picture. To avoid confusing the learner and overloading him or her with information in the early stages of learning, it is important to concentrate on only a few aspects of the skill. The teacher many therefore only cue the performer onto one or two aspects of the whole movement. One way of ensuring that the learner cues on to the rite stimuli is to change the display. The instructor may highlight certain features of the display to help the learner to concentrate on relevant and important information.

Manual and & Mechanical – This involves two factors:

1) Physical support for the performer by another person or a mechanical device. This is commonly known as physical restriction. An example of this is supporting a gymnast over a vault or the use of a twisting belt in trampolining.

2) The response of the performer being directed physically by another person. This is commonly known as forced response. Holding the arms of a golfer and forcing his or her arms through the movement of a drive is an example of forced response.

Conclusion

This assignment shows that there is different ways of teaching a skill according to the level of ability. A beginner is able to do the same skill as a person who is on a higher level but that skill may be broken down for them as a whole part whole or a part method where as the higher skilled person may just do it as a whole. It is still the same skill but different ways of doing it. It is the same for the guidance.

Skill Acquisition Page of Assignment 1