Women in Sport Today

AS and A Level Physical Education (Sport & Coaching)

Women Against Men?

It may be argued that women still do not compete on equal terms with men in many sports, but this is really a matter of performance rather than opportunity. This is traceable not to lack of application or unsuitability, but to physiological differences. We need to take into account that women in many sports are following rules originally designed by men to test male skills. It may be that some sports would see women emerge as more successful than men if they were played within a regulatory framework which was adapted to female strengths. This is unlikely ever to happen, because the traditions in women's sport are now so strong, but it is one more factor which has worked against women as competitors in sport. While physiological differences may have narrowed considerably in the last thirty years, they are still wide enough for almost all athletic competition to require single-gender participation. There are exceptions. Women have competed at the top level at croquet, but this is not a popular activity: the outstanding success of women in equestrian events, on the other hand, has shown that the term 'horsemanship' is not only sexist but inaccurate.

However, women do not and almost certainly will not compete with men in most sports, and, indeed, there is no reason why they should, although there is occasionally a dispute over which sports should be classed as unisex - rally driving and equestrianism are, but should sailboarding and ballet skiing be single-sex, too? Brailsford [1991: 142] compares male / female differences to divisions within sport for men, to which solutions have been found:

...and if the competition is to be separate, why should women slavishly follow game forms which were originally devised by and for men? It is the sort of issue which male sport has had to face within its own confines in the past. Early pugilism made no distinctions between large fighters and smaller ones - the classification of boxers by weight came in only gradually throughout the nineteenth century. Closer competition between racehorses was secured by handicapping. It will doubtless be left to the twenty-first century to see the emergence of a distinctive women's sporting world, equal to that of men, overlapping it, but with its own characteristic elements and offering something beyond synchronised swimming.

Taking Part and Being There

Participation levels in sport for women are now higher than ever, particularly in sports whose main aim is fitness - jogging, aerobics and swimming have traditionally been the most popular [HMSO, 1995: 2: 26], but the first of these has given way to the other two, which can be practised in the safe environment of the club or sports centre. Figures published recently by the Sports Council[1996: 29] show that only 2% of women now jog, whereas the figures for aerobics and swimming both top 15%; cycling is up to 7%. Hargreaves [103] contends that, although participation levels in some traditionally male domains - football, rugby, cricket etc - remain low, the numbers watching on television and gambling on these sports is much higher, and women bet as much as men on football results. To Hargreave's categories - which date back to the football hooligan era of the mid-eighties- can be added the new trend of widespread live attendance which has accompanied the rebuilding of football and rugby stadia. Cricket has always attracted a certain amount of support among women, apparently because of its safety and 'decorum' record, but numbers of women at football matches are currently the highest ever recorded. Significantly, it is younger women and girls who are going, suggesting that within a generation, when the older, men-only element has stopped attending, the male / female ratio will be significantly altered:

...there is no reason to suppose that the numbers will not be approximately equal within twenty years or so.

What is equally revealing is that the direct involvement of working-class women in sport has increased dramatically in the last two decades, particularly amongst Blacks. Athletes and sports stars from the USA, France, Jamaica and Britain, as well from Africa, have provided role models for young British Blacks, but working-class Whites are also seeing sport as a career option in a way which was never before feasible. This has come about partly as a result of a shift in traditional family values, which has signalled an evaporation of working-class male reluctance to accept women in 'their sphere'. More importantly, however, the relaxation of the restrictions on earnings, especially in athletics, has meant that the talented woman competitor has a realistic chance of financial reward. Until recently, the only sports which offered prize money of any significance were tennis and, to a lesser extent, golf, both of which have a middle-class tradition. Even this is changing, for tennis is now attracting working-class girls [and boys] thanks to Sports Council and Lawn Tennis Association initiatives, and Blacks in Britain are being attracted to the sport for the first time.

Media Representations

There is still a degree of sexism in women's sport, and there is no doubt that physical attractiveness is a factor in terms of media exposure. [It is becoming increasingly relevant in respect of men, too, now that advertising and sponsorship are such an important financial element.] Crump [62] cites the case of Mary Slaney, who received the wholesale attention of the Western media in the mid-eighties; her Czech contemporary, Ludmilla Kratochvilova was more successful on the track but her perceived lack of photogenic appeal meant that she was almost disregarded by television and press. The same might be said of sponsorship, but the position is somewhat different: if it is sexist to advertise through glamour, then it is in response to market forces, for the advertisers' principal concern is profitable business, not political correctness. The media have no such excuse, and as long as female competitors are referred to in respect of their physical attributes rather than their skill or performance, then we can consider that there is still some way to go before sport in Britain is truly devoid of gender bias.

Barriers Broken

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Barriers Broken

Such criticisms are relatively minor, however, in the light of all that has been achieved in women's sport. We live in an age not only where men and women jockeys ride together, but where women train and own champion racehorses [Vamplew: 1989: 239]. Women have taken over new roles [the managing director of Birmingham City Football Club is a young woman whose business sense - rather than nepotism or publicity-seeking on the part of the club- got her the job] and are entering fields of activity which would have been closed to them just a generation ago: there are a number of women football commentators working for the BBC, and women are producing more sports programmes for radio and television: Karen Buchanan is founding editor of the football magazine Four-Four-Two, which is highly regarded by players and fans. The trend of the nineties is one of female involvement in leadership and organisation. It is an area which still needs development, for there can only be genuine equality if administrators and decision makers come from both the male and female sectors. Gone for good, however, are the days when a concern over the 'breeding parts of the anatomy' could impede the involvement of women in sport, and we are unlikely to see women banned from the golf course for an inability to keep still and quiet.

Looking to the Future

Finally, let us consider some of the aspects of women's sport which might conceivably change with the advent of the new millennium, in the global, as well as the British context.

Will women be on the major international sporting boards such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA?
Will women be competing alongside men in sports which do not rely on speed and strength alone? [Shooting, archery, gymnastics, etc.]
Will women and men be paid the same even when they do not compete together? [In some sports, this already happens.]
Will provision be made for ethnic minorities in schools so that Asian women can pursue ethnic dance and other recreational activities which are culturally important?
Will the increase in live attendance mean the emergence of female football hooligans?
Will there be so much affirmative action that we have to consider creating opportunities for men?
Will girls be allowed to compete with boys in school sports such as football? [There have been recent attempts at this which have met with some resistance because of a reported lack of proper changing facilities for girls - hardly an insurmountable problem.]

Some of these will changes will happen, sooner rather than later, and we may even have synchronised swimming for men at the Olympic Games.

Changing attitudes towards women and sport

Tuesday December 6 Media release by Rosemary Cadden

When teenager Kelly Dixon, who became the youngest Australian to win the English Channel in July this year, receives one of the Women's Suffrage Certificates of Merit today for her outstanding achievement, it will be a graphic symbol of how attitudes towards women and sport have changed over the past century.

The same can be said for six South Australian women rowers who are also among the recipients at the ceremony in the Adelaide Town Hall this evening.

Beach swimming was not an option for women 100 years ago. Segregated bathing was stipulated by law, but women's swimming clubs were flourishing by the turn of the century.

There was also an Adelaide Women's Rowing Club but, once again, attitudes were very different then, when the sport was deemed suitable for women - provided they did not train or take it too seriously.

A total of 145 Certificates of Merit will be awarded to South Australian women who have made a significant achievement during the Women's Suffrage Centenary.

The categories are: winner of a senior individual national title; winner of a senior team national title; the captain/vice captain/coach of a senior Australian team; selected in a senior national team; outstanding individual achievement in a recreational activity; and outstanding group achievement in a recreational activity.

The event is one of many organised during this year by the Women's Suffrage Centenary Recreation and Sport Task Force to stimulate sporting activities.

Among those to receive awards are:

Karen Kah (speedskating)
Linda Lehman (canoeing)
Kathy Sambell (athletics)
Creina Dawson (croquet)
Michelle Fielke (netball)
Gillian Rolton (equestrienne)
Robyn Weckert (weightlifting)
Rae Harris (orienteering)
members of the successful Australian women's hockey team at the recent World Championships in Ireland
members of the Australian women's basketball team which won a Silver Medal in World Basketball Championships in Athens in July for players with an intellectual disability.

1. Principles

The Australian Greens are committed to:

1.1 the protection of women’s rights to equal respect, opportunity and responsibility in society

1.2 basing policies on ensuring equal access by women to all areas of political, social, intellectual and economic endeavour

1.3 increased and equitable participation by women in all decision-making processes

1.4 affirmative action legislation to reform the workplace to remove sources of direct, indirect and systematic discrimination against women (current complaint-based anti-discrimination legislation places the onus on victims of discrimination to bring about reform, often at a high personal and financial cost)

1.5 infrastructure changes to protect women from inequality, exploitation, poverty and violence; and to enable them to reach their full potential

1.6 the right of women to:

make informed choices about their lives, such as in lifestyle, sexual identity, health, whether to bear children and their reproductive process
have discriminatory laws against them repealed
choose whether they participate in the areas of paid work and/or domestic responsibility (this should be a right for men as well)
a guaranteed adequate income (GAI) to provide the means of choice (see Social Citizenship and Welfare Policy)

1.7 recognition of the real status and value of the unpaid caring roles carried out by people in our society

1.8 changes to address problems inherent in existing power structures – hierarchy, hegemony and patriarchy have been the dominant practices of our society, and have shaped our political system

1.9 women having equal access to all forms of education and training.

Women and Violence

1.10 All women have a right to safety at home, on the street and in the workplace, but violence against women is not only a women’s problem. Breaking the cycle of domestic violence in particular is a societal problem and the provision of shelter and refuge should be considered only a short-term solution. Any act of violence should be condemned publicly and privately as unacceptable. The Australian Greens’ long-term objective is to create an environment of non-violence, and to provide care and protection for victims in the interim.

Women and Pornography

1.11 The Australian Greens oppose the production, performance, display and distribution of pornographic material which depicts women and children as suitable objects for violence and sexual exploitation.

Women and Education

1.12 The Australian Greens seek to ensure educational experiences and outcomes for girls and women that enable full and equal participation in all aspects of economic and social life.

Women and the Environment

The environmental decision-making process has, to date, largely excluded women, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, and other minority groups.

1.13 Some environmental planning and decision making needs to be decentralised and devolved to local communities in such a way that the concerns of all people are heard.

1.14 The domestic sector and those industries where women predominate should have equal representation in environmental planning and decision making.

Women and the Arts

1.15 The Australian Greens support greater recognition of women’s contribution to the arts and acknowledge the role of women in shaping and representing cultural norms.

1.16 The Australian Greens will work towards ensuring that the views of women are represented, for example, through such avenues as representation of women on arts advisory boards.

Women and Sport

1.17 The Australian Greens support equal access for women and men to recreation facilities, coaching, sports education, competition, media coverage and funding. The need for programs that encourage girls to continue sporting and recreational pursuits beyond early secondary schooling is a priority.

2. Goals

Political and Public Participation

The Australian Greens will work towards ensuring:

2.1 that any reform is consistent with Australia’s commitment to the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women

2.2 equal representation of women in decision-making processes in the organisations of the Australian Greens at all levels, local, state and national

2.3 that all public boards and committees have a statutory requirement for equal representation of women and men.

Women and Violence

The Australian Greens will work towards:

2.4 a review of all relevant laws which have bearing on violence against women, and treatment of victims and perpetrators

2.5 ensuring women’s access to safe and secure accommodation through a comprehensive housing policy and the provision of adequate emergency housing.

Women and Pornography

2.6 The Australian Greens will work towards promoting the use of legal complaints procedures and processes.

Women and Health

The Australian Greens will work towards:

2.7 ensuring research and development funds are allocated both to women researchers and into women’s health problems

2.8 ensuring changes to the education of health providers with regard to women’s health issues

2.9 improving women’s access to information on their health so that they can make appropriate personal decisions

2.10 developing preventative health strategies targeting women and girls, including those that reduce the incidence of smoking among females

2.11 providing strategies for more women medical practitioners to enter those specialisations where women are currently under-represented.

Women and the Workforce

The Australian Greens will work towards:

2.12 ensuring equal opportunities for people employed in the paid work force with family responsibilities

2.13 making child care costs tax deductible for those in paid employment and rebatable for home carers under the provision of GAI (see Tax and Revenue Policy, and Social Citizenship and Welfare Policy)

2.14 ensuring the provision of adequate child care facilities in the workplace

2.15 encouraging flexible working conditions to enable workers with family responsibilities (e.g. parents minding young children, and adult children minding ageing parents) to fully participate in the workforce and avail themselves of opportunities equally with those who do not have such responsibilities

2.16 providing centres for continuing education and training for workers, including training and promotion opportunities for part-time and temporary workers

2.17 taking steps to facilitate re-entry, without loss of occupational status, of people who leave the workforce for parental leave or family responsibilities leave

2.18 ensuring changes brought about by strategies relating to the elimination of sexual discrimination will not place undue and unequal responsibility upon women and add to women’s workload

2.19 ensuring that award restructuring includes the specific aim of upgrading and broadening the low-paid, low-status positions that have traditionally been work for a majority of women, particularly migrant women

2.20 ensuring that women enjoy the full benefits of enterprise bargaining arrangements, particularly in the traditional work areas such as the service industry, where there is low union representation.

Women and Education

The Australian Greens will work towards:

2.21 ensuring that a national policy for the education of girls in Australian schools is implemented at all levels, until national indicators on education outcomes are relatively equal for women and men

2.22 eliminating gender-based harassment in schools and educational institutions and establishing equal opportunity offices to assess and consult about the effectiveness of programs and policies to achieve this

2.23 ensuring that teacher training for new and continuing teachers critically examines the patterns of sex role stereotyping in our society

2.24 continuing territory, state, and Commonwealth programs to promote girls’ and women’s greater participation in access to school, TAFE and university education, especially in science and technology disciplines

2.25 promoting policies to achieve a higher retention rate of women at higher degree level in universities

2.26 promoting policies to encourage a higher representation of women academics in all faculties of universities, and a higher proportion of women in senior academic positions.

Women and the Law

The Australian Greens will work towards:

2.27 remedying existing discrimination by ensuring a higher representation of women on legislative and judicial bodies

2.28 examining ways women could be encouraged to enter private practice and the bar

2.29 encouraging women to enter all areas of the legal profession (there is a current predominance of women in family and criminal law)

2.30 reviewing all laws which have a bearing on violence against women

2.31 developing further options for the protection of victims and the naming of perpetrators

2.32 addressing the myth of ‘victim-blaming’ by promoting change in societal attitudes to violence

2.33 removing sexist language from existing laws, and ensuring future legislation is non-sexist and does not assume assignment of roles according to sex (e.g. what constitutes a ‘family’ or ‘woman’s’ role in family relations)

2.34 repealing laws relating to sex work

2.35 examining and updating laws protecting women, such as legislation on anti-discrimination, equal opportunity and sex discrimination, affirmative action and equal pay, property, and family rights.

Women and the Environment

The Australian Greens will work towards implementing strategies to ensure that:

2.36 all environmental assessments consider the impact on health, communities and women

2.37 women’s needs and advice are considered in the area of urban planning.

Women and Sport

The Australian Greens will work towards:

2.38 developing monitoring strategies for equal opportunity and anti-discrimination principles to be applied to the administration of all sporting organisations

2.39 ensuring allocation of funding and awards will not be discriminatory and will allow equal opportunity for women.

3. Short Term Targets

Political and Public Participation

3.1 The Australian Greens will work towards developing programs and strategies to provide women with the skills to be effective candidates and members of Parliament and to actively promote women to stand as candidates for election.

Women and Violence

The Australian Greens will work towards:

3.2 establishing a national enquiry into sexual assault and uniform sexual assault laws, and specifically recognition of sexual assault within marriage and relationships

3.3 providing education from early primary school level on non-violent conflict resolution

3.4 addressing the health effects, both physical and emotional, of violence against women, through adequately funded, appropriate health and education programs

3.5 using publicity and educational campaigns to bring about a change in the way violence is viewed in our society, including a strategy to educate men that violence against women is a crime

3.6 expanding crisis services for women, with and without children. These include refuges, and services in areas such as rape crisis, abortion counselling, incest and domestic violence; with special provision for geographically remote locations, and culturally appropriate services for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women and women from non-English speaking backgrounds.

Women and Pornography

The Australian Greens will work towards:

3.7 extending classification systems to include video games, live performances and other leisure technologies

3.8 strengthening regulation on the display of advertising of material which includes violence against and sexual exploitation of women and children

3.9 instituting an education program to encourage critical examination of the role that the entertainment industry and the media play in the portrayal of women and children as victims of violent and sexual exploitation

3.10 removing existing tax incentives for hard-core pornographic films.

Women and Health

The Australian Greens will work towards:

3.11 the continuation of the current joint Commonwealth–state funding of community based women’s health centres

3.12 ensuring access to safe contraception on demand for all women, and information on options available

3.13 ensuring that women have a choice of where and how to give birth and information on available options

3.14 ensuring the right of women to determine what information is relevant to them

3.15 repealing all laws which restrict the right of women to choose abortion and which restrict access to services

3.16 ensuring access to legal, affordable, humane and safe abortion for all women, and provision of counselling pre- and post-termination.

Women and the Workforce

The Australian Greens will work towards:

3.17 ensuring that apprenticeships and training programs have positive discrimination towards women to ensure that opportunities are not denied to women because of inaccurate evaluation of women’s ability

3.18 giving the provision of maternity and paternity leave equal status in order to encourage the sharing of the parenting roles and equality of gender in the workplace

3.19 undertaking programs to raise awareness on issues of gender equity in the workplace and in education

3.20 giving priority to the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women for education and employment opportunities

3.21 ensuring that women have access to adequate retirement income, including superannuation

3.22 ensuring continuation of superannuation during parental leave.

Women and Education

The Australian Greens will work towards:

3.23 providing adequate funding for the support structures and support personnel necessary to implement national policy

3.24 ensuring that affirmative action is practised in schools to overcome the attitudes inherent in our society that result in different expectations for girls and boys, including changing school curricula and increasing girls’ participation in areas of maths, science, technology and trades

3.25 applying affirmative action to increase the number of women in senior, policy and decision-making positions in educational systems

3.26 providing bridging courses for women to facilitate their entry into the formal education arena

3.27 expanding women’s participation in science and technology to ensure that the introduction of new technology does not further the advantage of men

3.28 increasing women’s access to training and education in the use and understanding of computers and computer technology.

Women and the Law

The Australian Greens will work towards:

3.29 applying affirmative action to ensure that more women hold senior level positions within the government departments responsible for policy, administration and enforcement of the law

3.30 applying affirmative action to ensure that more women hold senior faculty positions within schools of law

3.31 strengthening laws which prohibit portrayal of women or children as objects of violence or sexual exploitation

3.32 amending the De Facto Relationships Act to recognise de facto relationships (including same sex relationships) in law as equal to legalised marriage (see LGBTI Policy).

Women and the Environment

The Australian Greens will work towards:

3.33 ensuring equal representation of women on environmental decision-making bodies

3.34 applying affirmative action principles to ensure women are able to participate at all levels of planning implementation and assessment of environmental policy.

Women and Sport

The Australian Greens will work towards:

3.35 providing public education to raise awareness of women’s rights to equal recreation and the importance of this

3.36 providing public education to change attitudes towards women in sport.