Availability of policy instruments- this is the ability of the EU to make available personnel to partake in external diplomatic representation, visits and negotiations such as the availability of policing (like that in Bosnia) and representatives for judicial missions to advise (as in Georgia.) It also relates to economic instruments for example the granting and/or withholding its economic presence such as market access, aid and imposing sanctions.
Europe as a global actor; development policy
European Union development policy is probably the most effective external area of the union after trade. Development policy is most notably born out of a post-colonial legacy. This legacy has extended into the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) and Asia and Latin American (ALA) regions. By the mid-1970’s it had grown to also encompass Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countries. The purpose of development policy is to support sustainable growth and development in less developed countries in order to tackle and eventually eradicate poverty.
Presence-
European development policy shows its global actorness through presence, particularly economic presence, in the ACP. This is exemplified in the effect of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) on this region. To counter these effects a range of policy responses were formed by the EU in relation to the ‘sensitive’ products produced by the ACP. These policies allowed the export of foodstuffs such as sugar and bananas into the Common Market free from tariffs. The EU does not reciprocate this practice, which is not legal according to the rules set out by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT.)
Aside from economic relations the EU shows its actorness through ‘presence by association.’ Many of the ACP countries were still colonies when the EC was formed and were therefore given preferential treatment by the founding members. For many of the ACP countries it was necessary to maintain a colonial legacy in order to secure trade relations. This is particularly evident in the French concept of EurAfrique whereby France claimed that its African colonies were a part of France and therefore a part of Europe. European development policy is also seen to act outside of the ACP, for example in the former Portuguese colony of East Timor. East Timor is not geographically located in the ACP ‘region’ but is however a member of the ACP.
Opportunity-
The European Union, in the twentieth century has seen much opportunity to act outside of Europe in terms of its development policy. Since the formation of the EC relationships between developing countries have become more complex giving the union more opportunity to act in an important role in North/South relations. The ending of the Cold War allowed the EU to become more dominant and ambitious in its development policy and the Treaty of the European Union (TEU) allowed the EU to “assert its identity on the international scene.” (Bretherton and Vogler 2006:5 p113)
Also enhanced by the end of the Cold War was the prioritisation of humanitarian aid. With the creation of the European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO) in 1992 humanitarian aid provision has become a large component of development policy.
Other opportunities for the EU to act outside of its member states came in the form of partnership conventions:
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Yaoundé convention-This convention combined part four of the EEC Treaty, together with an implementing convention, and governed relations between the EEC and the overseas countries and territories (OCTs). After these countries gained independence the OCT countries became associated with the EEC under the two Yaoundé Conventions (1964-1969 and 1971-1975).
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Lomé Conventions- The Acts of Accession of the United Kingdom , Ireland and Denmark offered the 20 Commonwealth countries in Africa , the Caribbean and the Pacific the possibility of negotiating with the EEC with regards their future trade relations. This led to the First Lomé Convention (1975-1980) followed by three other ones: 1981-1985, 1986-1990 and 1990-2000. The Fourth Lomé Convention was convened in order to discuss:
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The amending of the convention which came into force on 1 March 1990; the associated Financial Protocol was adopted for five years only. The amended Convention resulting from the mid-term review and the second Financial Protocol associated with Lomé IV were signed on 4 November 1995 , and expired on 28 February 2000 .
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Trading and trade cooperation arrangements. Practically all products originating in the ACP States (99.5%) had free access to the Community. Reciprocal arrangements were not compulsory; the ACP countries were merely required to grant the EU most-favoured-nation status.
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Human rights. As a result of the mid-term review, a clause (Article 366a) was inserted under which aid to a State might be suspended, partially or totally, if it breached Article 5 (human rights, democracy and the rule of law) of the Convention.
Cotonou convention- The Cotonou Convention between the 77 African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries and the 15 European Union states, signed in the economic capital of Benin on 23 June 2000, marks an important change in EU-ACP cooperation. The convention, which replaces the fourth Lomé Convention, has been signed for 20 years and is to be revised every five years. It covers five main points:
- To make the integration of the ACP into the world economy a priority by liberalising trade. In particular, the convention abolishes the price stabilisation mechanisms that safeguarded the export revenue of the ACP countries from agricultural products.
- The ACP will no longer automatically receive money. It will now depend on the achievement of targets (institutional reforms, use of resources, the reduction of poverty, long-term development measures).
- The fight against poverty must encompass many fields: political (regional cooperation), economic (development of the private sector, structural and sectoral reforms), social (youth, equal opportunities), cultural and environmental.
- The populations concerned must be informed and consulted to increase participation by the economic, social and local community actors in the implementation of projects.
- Provision must be made for political dialogue on all matters of mutual interest, nationally and regionally as well as at ACP level. Procedures, notably the suspension of aid, are put in place for human rights violations or corruption.
The partnership conventions were of great importance to the co-operation between the EU and the ACP countries, giving the ACP formal recognition and the ability to act independently of the EU.
Capability
Consistency
Despite the fact that, internally, the Member States often disagree about the Union’s relations with the ACP countries this disagreement is usually small enough to not disrupt the policy area allowing good consistency within Development policy. There is however matters arising with clashes between European Union Development policy and the Member States own policy.
Coherence
There are coherence issues within Development policy particularly as there are plans to include the EDF in the Community budget. This may mean lees financial backing for Development policy as other policy areas take priority.
Availability of policy instruments
The EC, it would appear, do have the instruments available to provide development aid to less developed countries, primarily through the European Development Fund. The European Development Fund (EDF) is the main instrument for Community aid for development cooperation in the ACP countries and the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCT). The EDF consists of several instruments, including grants, risk capital and loans to the private sector. The EDF is derived from Member State funding rather than from the community budget. This however is set to change in 2007 when the EDF will be included in the overall EC budget. Concerns have been raised about this as this will allow money to be taken from the EDF thus limiting the availability of funds for development policy.
The EU has the ability to provide diplomatic personnel to observe the use of the money given by the EU for example the observer mission to Darfur. The mission comprised of 626 military observers, a 1078 member protection force and a 815 member civilian police force. The Union also provided 80 million Euros to support this mission.
The fragmented nature of EU development policy and its differing approaches to the ALA and the ACP countries can create tensions between development co-operation and the work of the ECHO (Humanitarian Aid department.)
The major prioritisation of the ACP countries also caused some tensions however it is this relationship, the creation of the ACP and its rapid increase in size (no country has ever left the ACP) that indicates the presence of the EU Development policy in global politics and therefore its global actorness.
A further manifestation of the external actorness of Development policy is the ability to impose “continually expanding political conditionalities, and penalties for failing to meet the EU prescriptions.”(Bretherton and Vogler 2006:5 p135)
The EU is continuing to expand its actorness through developing its relations to the ALA with particular focus on the Unions security agenda exemplified by the Strategic Partnership Agreements with Japan, India and China.
The actorness of EU in Development Policy is however diluted by the aims of individual Member States. The full potential of Development policy to act outside of Europe could only be fulfilled if greater consistency was achieved between European Union and Member States policy.
Europe as a global actor; Environment policy
The formation of the Treaty of Rome did not provide any considerations for environmental matters and the evolution of environmental policy came about largely due to increased scientific understanding and public awareness. The ending of the cold war set the stage for the Rio Summit in 1992 and the resulting agenda 21.
Presence
The EU must show presence on a global scale with regards to Environment policy on account that the union does exploit the planets natural resources for example natural gas and fish stocks. Also, the EU Member States collectively emit the second largest amount of Carbon Dioxide per capita (behind the USA.) According to statistics released by UNDP in 1999, in 1996 the EU emitted 12.5% of the worlds Carbon Dioxide emissions. On this basis it is impossible for the EU not to be involved in environmental protection on a global scale.
The EU also has wider presence through its reputation for having strong internal environmental policy. Environmental considerations are implemented into every internal policy are from Fisheries to Trade.
Opportunity
As early as 1972 the union developed an agenda for environmental issues. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm convened in order to discuss, amongst other things, the deposition of acid rain in Germany and Sweden, primarily from the UK. This conference began the focus on cross-border problems associated with the environment.
The development of these cross-border environmental issues led to the notion that the EU would benefit from acting as a collective entity. This in turn, urged the UN to develop the category of REIO (Regional Economic Integration Organisation), which allowed the EU to act as a single entity. The UN conference on Trade and Development Secretariat clarified the definition and legal implications of REIO’s. The REIO (of which the EC remains the only present example) is allowed to participate fully in the work of a convention and to cast the votes of all its Member States.
The gradual growth in public awareness in the 1980’s and the provision of scientific evidence about the threats of climate change and the loss of natural resources provided a stage on which the EU could act through the championing of environmental causes such as the Kyoto Protocol. More recently the EU has taken the opportunity to become a leading voice in the fight to protect the environment as it is becoming clear that the EU must take the place of the USA in global environment policy. The EU exemplifies this in the championing of the Kyoto Protocol on climate change. The protocol was not ratified by the USA (along with Australia, Liechtenstein and Monaco) The EU however was a pivotal player in getting the Russian and Chinese Governments to consider the protocol.
Capability
- Consistency
This is one area of difficulty for the EU as the level of action taken to secure environmental protection is not consistent between Member states. This is shown in the concept of perceived leaders and laggards, for example
This was highlighted by the formation of the ‘bubble’, a concept born out of the need to meet Kyoto emissions reduction targets. The ‘bubble’ meant that if Europe worked as a collective then some of the poorer European countries could increase their emissions whilst others must reduce theirs for example Luxembourg must reduce their emissions by 28% whereas Greece and Ireland were allowed increases of 25% and 13% respectively. The failure of some Member States like the UK to meet their ‘bubble’ targets has drawn into question the ability of the EU to act as a single entity.
Coherence
Many of the EU’s actions would suggest that they do have the capability to act on a global scale with regards environmental policy. This is shown in the ‘shared values’ and instance of imposing international agreements between the Community and the Member States such as the “polluter pays” principle and the “precautionary principle”. It is also shown in the ability of the Union to refuse to accept imports for example the refusal to accept genetically modified crops from America. However this capability is undermined by the fact that The EU is still controlled by shared competence with the Community and the Member States controlling different parts of the policy.
Availability of policy instruments
The availability of policy instruments is a key component of actorness. The global presence of the EU and the ‘diplomatic’ links of its Member States mean that the EU does have policy instruments available.
The creation of the European Environment Agency showed an increasing willingness to employ policy instruments in support of external environmental aims. (Bretherton and Vogler 2006 4:99) The Agency provided the scientific instruments needed to tackle growing environmental problems. Also the development of the GMES project in partnership with the European Space Agency “ensures Europe’s interest to be an actor at the global level.” (Commission 2003f 15)
The EU has the capacity to implement both Environmental and Development policy agreements. This enhances the effectiveness and credibility of the European Union in acting as a collective state rather than a group of individual nations. However the procedures in place to ratify directives and regulations are very complex and often common external policy can be based on different levels of contributions made by Member States at different stages of economic development. Bretherton and Vogler 2006 4:100) It may be possible for the European union to act globally with regards to Development policy however I believe that it will find doing the same in terms of Environmental policy very difficult this is due to the fact that work between the Member States is not consistent and it is difficult even to implement it internally as it will always clash, (particularly within DG Trade) with the priorities of other policy areas.
Reference list
Activities of the European Union; External relations http://europa.eu.int/pol/ext/index_en.htm Accessed 02/11/2005
Bretherton, C. and Vogler, J. (2006) Europe as a Global Actor, Routledge
Earth Negotiations Bulletin VOL 24 No 54 Published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development from http://iisd.ca/vol24/enb2454e.html Accessed 15/11/2005
EU mobilises an additional €80 from African peace faculty to support enlarged African Union observer mission in Darfur, Sudan. Brussels (26/10/2004) from http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do
European Commission, (2005) the A World Player: The European Union’s External Relations, Europe on the move, from http://www.europea.eu.int/comm Accessed 10/11/2005
European Development Fund (Last update 12/10/2001) http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/r12102.htm Accessed 06/12/06
European Parliament Fact Sheets (2004) Relations with the African, Caribbean European Commission, (2005) the A World Player: The European Union’s External Relations, Europe on the move, from http://www.europea.eu.int/comm Accessed 10/11/2005
Kristianasen, W. (2002) The Cotonou Convention, Le Monde Diplomatique
Kyoto USA http://www.kyotousa.org/ Accessed 08/12/2005
Unified external service of the European Commission http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations /delegations/intro/index.htm Accessed 09/11/2005
Activities of the European Union; External relations http://europa.eu.int/pol/ext/index_en.htm Accessed 02/11/2005
Unified external service of the European Commission http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations /delegations/intro/index.htm Accessed 09/11/2005
European Commission, (2005) the A World Player: The European Union’s External Relations, Europe on the move, from http://www.europea.eu.int/comm Accessed 10/11/2005
Bretherton, C. and Vogler, J. (2006) Europe as a Global Actor, Routledge
European Parliament Fact Sheets (2004) Relations with the African, Caribbean and Pacific countries: from the Yaoundé and Lomé Conventions to the Cotonou Agreement http://www.europarl.eu.int/facts/6_4_5_en.htm Accessed 20/11/2005
European Parliament Fact Sheets (2004) Relations with the African, Caribbean and Pacific countries: from the Yaoundé and Lomé Conventions to the Cotonou Agreement http://www.europarl.eu.int/facts/6_4_5_en.htm Accessed 20/11/2005
Kristianasen, W. (2002) The Cotonou Convention, Le Monde Diplomatique
European Development Fund (Last update 12/10/2001) http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/r12102.htm Accessed 06/12/06
EU mobilises an additional €80 from African peace faculty to support enlarged African Union observer mission in Darfur, Sudan. Brussels (26/10/2004) from http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do
Earth Negotiations Bulletin VOL 24 No 54 Published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development from http://iisd.ca/vol24/enb2454e.html Accessed 15/11/2005
Kyoto USA http://www.kyotousa.org/ Accessed 08/12/2005