Using Suetonius and Res Gestae, assess how effective Octavian was in enlisting Senatorial Support for his new administration in the period 30 to 19 BC.

Edward Moloney, 09/05/2007, Classical Civilisation Coursework,

Octavian was the son of Gaius Octavius, a senator, but was the adopted son of Julius Caesar. Essentially Octavian, or Augustus as he became known as in 27BC, was a conservative republican. This is shown by Res Gestae Divi Augusti (literally ‘the achievements of the Divine August’) paragraph 8: “I brought back into use many exemplary practises of our ancestors which were disappearing in our time.” And also by Suetonius’ “The Twelve Caesars, Augustus,” chapter 93: “Augustus showed great respect to all ancient and long established foreign rites.” The Republican system was based on a democratic Timocracy (the rule of the rich) and Octavian needed to keep it this way. However, Octavian learnt many things from his adoptive father, Julius Caesar. Octavian believed that for the republic to be effective there needed to be one man controlling it, but not becoming a dictator. If someone were to become a dictator, not only would it be completely unconstitutional, it would threaten the peace of the Empire as the temptation of the Dictatorship may be too much for ambitious nobles. Octavian needed to create a new constitutional position for himself because he needed senatorial co-operation to run the empire affectively. He would essentially create an oligarchy, without claiming a dictatorship, if such a thing is possible. Henceforth I will refer to this position, in Octavian’s political philosophy, as the Princeps, meaning the ‘first man,’ as he became known around 23BC.

The Senate was a group of the wealthy class of Romans who stood to advise the magistrates. The members of the Senate were usually powerful, wealthy men who had links with the military and the provinces. They could threaten Octavian and mobilise support against him. Magistrates were made senators if they reached the status of Quaestor. They were traditionally republican and democratic, as they were voted for in this manner. Senators saw themselves as the protectors of the Roman Constitution, but also wanted to climb to the highest ranks possible in the cursus honorum (the ladder of offices). Climbing this ladder of offices meant positions which meant power and money. However, these positions were highly contested and sought after. The cursus honorum was sacred to them, and so, in consequence, they were conservative. However, Octavian came from the same social background (Octavian’s real father was a Senator) as the senators and: “exchanged social calls with many noblemen” (Suetonius 53) He therefore wanted the upper class to feel loyalty to the principle of the constitution, and willingly participate in the government. The Senate was comprised of many different men with many different agendas and so cannot be perceived as a single unity, but all senators were interested in the maintenance of the Roman Constitution and the pursuit of wealth. The magistrates, therefore, had an incentive to gain higher positions, but Octavian also wanted them to know that they had an essential role in governing a successful Empire, and he needed their co-operation.

From the outset, Octavian showed a great awareness of the Senate. He did not want to make the same mistakes as Julius Caesar. Caesar was assassinated by senators in 44BC because he had kept too many of the high positions. He had manipulated the Roman constitution too far and had effectively become a dictator. The conservative senatorial class resented this. As the Roman Constitution was semi-democratic, to get a high position the plebeians (commoners) needed to vote a candidate into office. Therefore the Senators had a need to please the public. The Latin phrase “Senatus Populusque Romanus” (the Senate and the People of Rome) sums this point up. Octavian needed to please the public, so he could give the senators high positions, and keep them under check. However Octavian did not realise this at first and he illegally created himself consul: “At the age of 19 he created himself consul, marched on Rome as if it were an enemy city ... to demand that the appointment [of consul] should be confirmed. When the Senate hesitated to obey ... a centurion ... displayed the hilt of his sword and boldly said ‘If you do not make him consul, this will!’” (Suetonius 26). But how were these aims to fit into the fact that Octavian wanted to remain in power, and not be too obvious about this fact?

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Following the death of Julius Caesar, on the 27th of November in 43BC Titius, a tribune passed the lex titia in the tribunal assembly. This was a law appointing Anthony, Lepidus and Octavian triumvirs for 5 years, but this time could be lengthened. This was the technique of a populares, rather than being passed by the Senate and being Optimates. The Triumvirs were clever in the fact that they did not advertise the unconstitutional position of dictator. The leader of the ‘three men to rule’ was Antony- a leading Caesarean and so therefore a populares. The constitutional position stood against the ideals of the Roman Republic and therefore brought an end to the Roman Republic. This was unacceptable from the point of view of a conservative republican senator. They immediately set to work getting themselves high position and money. The source of the Triumvirs strength was military power. Together, the Triumvirs controlled 60 legions. They proscribed 300 senators and 2000 Equites. A proscription is where a bounty is placed on someone for their death. The Triumvirs did this to try to scare the senators so that they would be more lenient. Clemency had not paid Caesar so Octavian was ruthless: “Augustus…carried it [proscription] out more ruthlessly that either of them [the other Triumvirs].” He needed to crush his enemies in the Senate so they would not ‘stab him in the back’ while he was fighting Cassius and Brutus. He also needed the money (from confiscated lands) to pay off his troops.

In 33BC the legal term of the Triumvirate came to an end. Octavian cleverly denounced the power of a triumvir which showed that he respected the Roman Constitution. Over the past 10 years relationships between the triumvirs had degenerated. The Empire had been split between Anthony and Octavian. Anthony had, in the ‘Donations of Alexandria’ effectively declared his attempts to make Alexandria the Capital of the Roman Empire, at least in the publics’ view. Octavian conducted an ‘Oath of Allegiance’ among the Roman people. Augustus then asked for a mandate to defeat Anthony in the name of the Republic. The Senate, because of the power of the people, had no choice but to follow Octavian. Octavians’ power was now in the hands of the people as well as in his military might that had previously enforced the Triumvirate. The only other power that he had was sacrosanctity that was given to him in 36BC. He defeated Anthony in 30BC, and so pleased the Senate greatly because another Civil War was over comparably quickly.

In 28BC he revised the senatorial list: “...decided Augustus to restore the order to its former size and repute by two new acts of enrolment ... he is said to have worn a sword and steel corselet beneath his tunic.” (Suetonius chapter 35) He gets rid of his senatorial enemies by making them resign, he does not kill them. If he had, this act would have intimidated them even more. He lets them keep their prestige and dignity: “Though shaming some of them [senators] into resignation, he did not deny them the right to wear senatorial dress, or to watch the games from the orchestra seats, or to attend the Orders’ public banquets.” (Suetonius 35). Augustus also makes it easier for Senators to do their duties by making proceedings happen in a more orderly fashion. An example of this is when Octavian creates a Senate committee that proposed business to be submitted to the Senate. This Senate committee gave Octavian the power to have control over what decrees were put to the Senate. He also makes it easier for the senators to fulfil their duties he decreed that “meetings should not be held more than twice a month ... no member need attend accept those...needed to provide a quorum.” (Suetonius 35). He restores the dignity and respect of the Senate by encouraging them to speak freely and pray before the proceeding took place. However, the Senate’s proceedings had been censored by Augustus because of the Senate committee that he chaired. Due to the increasing amount of absentee Senators, Augustus (formerly Octavian) had to increase fines in 17BC and 9BC. Senators were also not allowed to leave Italy without permission. In order to preserve its exclusive nature, and to strengthen the social hierarchy, a property qualification was introduced: “The property qualification was now increased from 8000 to 12000 gold pieces” (Suetonius 41) but Octavian gave sufficient money to Senators that he deemed worthy of this privilege.

In 27BC Octavian decided that he wanted to normalize his position in the Roman Constitution. He renounced his powers and placed them in the hands of the Roman people and Senate. This was why he revised the senatorial list- he needed the support in the Senate. The Senate protested (a premeditated response) and granted him proconsular imperium (supreme executive authority) for ten years. He was given the name ‘Augustus’ (means ‘one to be revered’) and I shall henceforth refer to him in this manner. He was granted maius imperium (great imperium) over parts of the empire that were supposedly under threat, but actually he wanted them because they had armies in them. He needed to protect these armies from ambitious politicians who could potentially spark yet another civil war, which was not in his best interests. Augustus, therefore, needed the right to appoint legates, make war, and conclude treaties. Augustus now aimed to resemble a magistrate- he had a plain house and the only insignia he carried was that of a Consul. However his proconsular imperium did not give him jurisdiction in Italy or Rome. To get this, Augustus was continually elected to the consulship every year (until 23BC). However this annoyed the senators, as there was one less position to get hold of and so there was one less man to get money and power.

The Senate gained quite a few things back from Augustus in 27, but he was still very powerful. The Senate appeared to be more powerful and so they had more honour and prestige. The proconsular system was partly restored so they could have more powerful positions and more money. They also had stability in the Empire for the first time in 100 years. The Roman Empire would also become strong again because there were no more civil wars with consequences of loss of life.

In 24BC he now felt quite safe, because it was obvious that Augustus was supreme, and so left Rome to tour the Empire for three years. However he still held the consulship and this makes many of the senatorial class angry because there was one less position to get hold of, and so there was only power and money for one of the contenders of the consulship, as there was only one consular position left. Many conspiracies were organised against him, which highlighted senatorial resentment. This is shown by Suetonius, Augustus19: “…He suppressed a series of sporadic riots and revolts, besides certain conspiracies…” A particular conspiracy was organised against him by Varro Murena (Augustus’ fellow consul in this year) and Fannius Caepio. It was discovered by a network of spies, a sign that Augustus was keeping checks on the senators. He was also very ill in 23BC and believed he was going to die (this could have been true, but it was also a convenient excuse). These two reasons gave Augustus excuse to relieve himself of the consulship and its tiring day-to-day business: “Twice Augustus seriously thought of restoring the republican system…when he could not shake off an exhausting illness.” Suetonius (Augustus, 28) then goes onto quote Augustus: “‘May I be privileged to build a firm and lasting foundations for the government of the state. May I also receive the award to which I aspire: that of being known as the author of the best possible constitution, and of carrying with me, when I die, the hope that these foundations which I have established for the state will abide secure.’ And indeed he achieved this success, having taken great trouble to prevent his political system from causing any individual distress.”

He now, however, did not have any consular imperium or sacrosanctity of a tribune, so the Senate gave him a proconsular imperium for a limited time: “... the senate passed decrees in my honour ... giving me imperium.” (Res Gestae 1) He was also given the power of a tribune. He was very pleased about this last title because he could now propose and veto laws, and he could prosecute magistrates in the name of the people, and blame the people for these prosecutions. He could not be prosecuted by the magistrates nor could he be prosecuted under law. However, Augustus was still not happy. His proconsular imperium was not valid in Rome. He was granted, by the Senate, the imperium of a consul (impirium consulare in 19BC), but not the job of a consul, as this would deny someone of a position at the top of the cursus honorum. However, he refused the offers of Dictator, Consul and Censor for life. This is shown by Res Gestae 5: "The dictatorship was offered to me by both Senate and people, but I refused it." Also Suetonius 52: "when the people would have forced a dictatorship on him [Augustus] …he ... implored their silence." The fact that he was offered the dictatorship by the Senate shows their support for him was great but, if he had taken the dictatorship he could have angered them. An alternative interpretation is that he may have angered them when he didn’t take the offer up. From now on, Augustus only took titles that implied authority, but not power. This is shown by his acceptance of the title “Father of his country” in 2BC. Suetonius, in chapter 57 quotes Augustus with an eerie authenticity on this matter: ‘“Fathers of the Senate, I have at last reached my highest ambition. What more can I ask of the immortal gods than they may permit me to enjoy your [the senates] approval until my dying day?”’

Augustus also easily changed the responsibilities and conditions of the Magistrates. For example, in order to increase the chance of people becoming (and therefore the number of noble families) the length of service of a consul was shortened from 1 year to 6 months after 5BC. The first half of the year was called consules ordinaii, and the second part of the year was called consules suffecti. ‘New men’ (novus homo) were able to become consuls. Also, after 22BC Praetors took over the organisation of the Games- a greatly beneficial thing for the Praetors as this was another chance of getting popular support to be elected Consul. In addition, Augustus had complete control of the Senate, being allowed to speak first, to sit between the consuls, even to give the Senate legislative powers.

The wide range and continuity of Augustus’ functions and the magnitude of his powers were essentially monarchical. The mere fact that we call Augustus an Emperor is sufficient information to declare his might monarchical or dictatorial. He was even called the ‘first man’ (Princeps) and ‘one to be revered’ (Augustus) by the Roman people. He had control over everything, but he did not advertise it. He had the ability to change the responsibilities of Magistrates. He had control over the security of the Empire- after all; his generals had the last word in peace or war so he had to have had control over the treaties. He also had to pay for his troops, so he had control over taxation. He had the power of a Consul and a Tribune. His Tribuneship gave him power to veto laws, propose laws and attack political rivals in a court of law. The consulship gave him power to command armies, authorise public spending and, with the power of Pontifex Maximus (Head of Roman Religion in 12BC), read the auspices. As you can see, Augustus had some degree of control over every aspect of the Roman Constitution. The Roman people saw this also. They made him into a god, and possibly changed his birth date so it coincided exactly with the Catilinarian Conspiracy where Julius Caesar was threatened with death in the Senate (Suetonius, Julius Caesar, 14). Augustus had secured Pax Romanus for 20 years by pleasing the upper classes using a façade of constitutional positions and by not changing things too dramatically or controversially. This was the ultimate gift to the Senators because they could become rich, secure, have honour and pursue political careers again.

In contrast with their former position, during the times of Sulla and Caesar, the senators were superior. Even through they were controlled by Augustus, they still had the respect of the people and they had status. Everything they desired, they had. Everything that Augustus needed control of, he had at least a say in. In this way, Augustus was very effective in his dealings with the senate during his new administration.

Bibliography

Ancient Culture and Society, Augustus, AHM Jones

The Achievements of the Divine Augustus (Res Gestae).

Augustus and the Julio-Claudians, Pamela Bradley

A History of Rome, M. Cary and H.H. Scullard

The 12 Caesars, Gaius Suetonius Tranquillas.

The Annals, Tacitus