Aggression in Females:
- Females are generally viewed as less aggressive since the costs of such behaviour outweigh the benefits.
- It is more important for the mother to survive because her presence is more critical to the survival of offspring than the faster.
Research evidence
-
Hill and Hurtado (1996) - among the Ache of Paraguay, children are 5 times more likely to die if the mother dies, and 100% likely if this happens before the child is one year old.
-
Griskevicius et al (2009) have shown that sex differences in aggression exist for both direct physical aggression (men exhibit more) and for indirect, verbal and psychological aggression (which females make more use of).
Infidelity and jealousy:
-
A woman can be 100% certain that the child she carries is hers, but a man has no such certainty. Sexual jealousy therefore has evolved to help males protect their investment. Daly and Wilson (1985) - found that sexual jealousy was the underlying factor in 58 out of 214 cases of murder.
-
Male aggression against females is designed to deter females from indulging in behaviour which is not in the interests of the male. Bellis and Baker (1990) estimate that 7 to 14% of children are not fathered by the mother's husband or partner. Miller (1980) - of 44 battered wives living in a women's hostel in Canada, 55% cited jealousy as the reason for their husband's behaviour.
- Male aggression may also occur in response to a threat from a rival suitor. Young (1978) - asked to describe their likely reactions to a jealousy-inducing situation in a film, men predicted anger, drunkeness and threatening behaviour. Whereas, women predicted crying not to care and increasing their own attractiveness.
Explanations of group display:
Group display in animals is a specialised pattern of behaviour used for courtship or intimidation.
Group display and war:
From an evolutionary perspective, war is the formation of a alliance to attack others within the same species.
Chagnon (1968)
- Warfare exists among many modern-day tribal societies, e.g. Yanomamo of the Amazon rainforest.
- The only advantage of one group can have over another is manpower, so they are obsessed with the size of their villages.
- The most frequent cause of conflict is abduction of women to increase their size.
- Battle can also give a warrior status and increase his chances of attracting females - successful warriors have more wives and children.
Pinker (1997):
- Points out that in WWII the Germans invading Eastern Europe carried out systematic rape and abuse of women.
- In Bosnia during the Yugoslavian conflict more than 20,000 Muslim women were raped as part of an organised attempt by Serbs to impregnate women who would then raise Serbian children; and also to terrorise others into fleeing their land.
Lehmann and Feldman (2008):
- Men who are stronger and more aggressive will win wars and survive to pass on their genes, leading to an increasingly aggressive species.
- Two traits have evolved in humans that determine the likelihood of conflict:
1. Belligerence (which increases the probability that one group will attack another).
2. Bravery (which increases the chances of winning)
Groups with males high in both qualities are most likely to go to war and win.
Group display and sport:
It has been argued that tribal warfare has been replaced by sporting events.
The New Zealand All Black rugby team does the `Haka` before a game: this was originally performed by Maori warriors before going into battle.
Marsh (1978):
Hooliganism is the equivalent of ceremonial conflict seen in some animal species.
- e.g. they are exclusively male and involve trials of strength over territory, and risk of physical harm and death are minimised.
This is a way of gaining power and status and therefore access to resources without threatening the survival of group members, thus preserving the species.
by
thenainoji (student)
