Attachment and Bonding

This essay will discuss, compare and analyse various theories of attachment and bonding, and how it can affect the emotional health of the individual. A well known psychiatrist called John Bowlby made a statement to the World Health Organisation which was as follows: ‘The prolonged deprivation of the young child of maternal care may have grave and far reaching effects on his character and so the whole future of his life’

John Bowlby was British and trained as a child psychiatrist. He was influenced by Freud’s psycho-analytic approach and had strong beliefs that early childhood experiences could influence a child’s development. He also believed that attachment was a two way relationship that is formed between the infant and another person, the other person usually being the mother. In Bowlby’s theory, there was a biologically based and instinctive need to build attachment.

(Gross 2005)

Bowlby was particularly interested in the effects of separation of children from their parents. He studied a group of post war children, bearing in mind these children had been through evacuation, deportation, and bereavement, and they had also suffered the disruption which was happening to families all over Europe. Bowlby studied in depth the children who had been separated from their parents and alongside this he interviewed disturbed adolescents, he found a strong link between what he called ‘maternal deprivation’ and the problems in adult life such as mental illness, delinquency and difficulties in parenting.

(Beckett 2002)

In 1946 John Bowlby had been requested to study the family history of 44 juvenile thieves, from his study Bowlby discovered that out of the 44 seventeen of them had been separated from their mothers for six months or more before their fifth birthday. He then compared his findings with 44 adolescents who already had emotional problems but where not ‘thieves’. He noted that 14 showed affectionless psychopathy, they where also recorded as having no feelings of affection, warmth or concern for anyone. Bowlby firmly believed that these adolescent problems where a result from the experience of early separation.

( accessed 20/1/07)

It is believed that attachment develops through various stages as a child develops, there are four stages and the first stage is referred to as ‘pre-attachment’. This stage happens between the ages of 0-2months, during this stage a baby will enjoy social interaction it will be able to recognise and show interest in human voices and faces, it is believed that at this stage most babies could be left with different caregivers without causing distress. The next stage is called ‘attachment in the making’ this stage usually occurs between the ages of 3-6 months, at this stage the babies behave differently to different people, they are able to respond more to familiar people than they do to strangers and are more focused on their main carer.

(Beckett,2002)

The following stage is called ‘clear cut attachment’ through out this stage the child will actively seek contact with their main carer, when the distance between the two becomes too great the child will show forms of anxiety, crying and looking for the main carer to return. The final stage is called ‘reciprocal relationship’ this stage happens from about 3 years old, during this time the child will become more mobile and spend more time away from the main carer, a feeling of security can be maintained during small times of separation.

(Beckett,2002)

Bowlby’s study on maternal ...

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(Beckett,2002)

Bowlby’s study on maternal deprivation was largely conducted on children who where either in residential nurseries or other institutions, during the 1930s and 1940s. Bowlby was able to highlight the effect this sort of deprivation had on children.

(Gross 2005)

Children who suffer from attachment disorder generally carry it through into adulthood. Attachment disorder begins when one is unable to form healthy relationships in a social setting. This problem will range in severity as well as in age. The symptoms of attachment disorder may range from depression, anxiety, self mutilation, sadness and a feeling of no self worth.

(Ref: , accessed 25/1/07)

Treatment for an individual who is suffering from attachment disorder would be individually based work, using a broad range of therapeutic approaches this is currently provided to a number of people both in the U.K. and Ireland. Assessment work includes: cognitive assessment, diagnostic assessments, risk assessment, and challenging behaviour. ( )

Another well known person who has researched attachment and the effects it has is Mary Ainsworth. Research she will be known best for is the ‘Strange situation’. This theory was studied in family homes where Ainsworth observed the child’s behaviour with caregivers and strangers, it was proposed that different attachment types could be seen based on independence of the playing infant, it also studied the anxiety shown if the child was left alone or with the stranger and also the response which took place when the child was reunited with the primary carer.

(Jarvis et al, 2001)

Babies are very clever and use genetically determined behaviour such as smiling, crying, clinging and gazing as well as other similar behaviours which aid in keeping their mothers close and interested, this two way relationship with the mother who seems to have a biological need to be near the baby is referred to as monotropy and is crucial in the first 2 years of childhood. (Gross, 2005)

Ainsworth also studied the attachment process in the Ganda community of Uganda, she recorded how the babies would stop crying if they where held by their mothers, but would not stop if anyone else picked them up. Babies in the Ganda tribe slept with their mothers and where breast fed until they where about 2 years old, when compared to babies from Baltimore, USA it was noted that the cultural difference would affect their reactions depending on their previous experience of separation.

(Thomas et al, 1997 )

Like Bowlby, Ainsworth had strong beliefs that the quality of a child and parent attachment was developed through the care provided by the primary carer. She believed that the crucial ingredient to successful parenting was determined on how capable the parent was on being able to pick up and respond to the child’s signals. Ainsworth tested whether there was an association between mothers who displayed low levels of sensitive responsiveness from which this behaviour babies developed insecure attachments.

(Jarvis et al, 2001)

Ainsworth also categorised attachment into three stages. The first is referred to as the ‘anxious avoidant stage’, during this stage the child’s behaviour was to ignore the mother, because of indifferences towards her, the child also carried on playing regardless of whether the mother was there or not, little or no signs where recorded if the mother left the room and it was noted that the child ignored the mother when she returned. It was also noted that the child could be comforted by the stranger as easily as it could by the mother.

(Gross, 2005)

The next stage in Ainsworth’s research is called the ‘securely attached stage’, through this stage it was noted that the child played happily while the mother was here, regardless of whether the stranger is there or not. It was noted that the child was happily ignoring the mother as it knows and trusts her to be there if needed. When the mother left the room the child clearly became distressed and when she returns the child seeks attention from her immediately. During this stage the child is unable to be comforted by the stranger, the child treats the stranger in a totally different way, and clearly showed signs of assurance once the mother was present.

(Gross, 2005)

The third and final stage is called ‘anxious resistant stage’, during this stage it is noted that the child is fussy and wary when the mother is present, when compared to the other two it was noted that the child had difficulty in associating the mother as a safe base, although the child got very distressed when the mother left the room, when she returned the child clearly displayed resistance and anger towards her, ie wanting to be picked up and then struggling to be put down, it was also obvious that the child could not be comforted by the stranger.

(Gross, 2005)

It was discovered that mothers of insecurely attached children tend to be less responsive to the child and cuddle them less; this view supports the idea that responsiveness is important in the development of secure attachments.

(Jarvis et al,2001)

Harry Harlow also carried out a series of experiments to determine the source of maternal attachment, however, his experiments were carried out using monkeys. The baby monkeys were separated from their birth mother within hours of being born and placed in cages containing surrogate mothers, one had been made purely from wire and had a bottle attached to it’s chest and the other had been made from foam and was covered in a soft cloth. The baby monkeys showed a clear preference for the cloth covered mother even though it offered no source of food, they would only go to the wire mesh mother for food but would then return and cling to the soft covered mother. Results from many other experiments showed that a warm, comfortable area to which they could cling was more likely to promote attachment than a mere source of food.

(Thomas et al 1997)

Further study concluded that after spending time with what was known as a therapy monkey they would then be introduced back with their own species. When a female had successfully mated it was noted that they did not make good mothers, they where neglectful or abusive to their young therefore proving that interaction with other members of their species during the first 6 months of life appears to be crucial for normal social development.

(Atkinson et al, 1990)

Evidence and research suggests that normal infants who have developed and maintained strong attachments will most likely become socially outgoing and want to explore their environment. Alongside this theory it is believed that if good attachments are made it will provide the basis for healthy emotional and social development in later life.

(Mussen et al,1984)

There are similarities between these three theories, the most prominent one is that for any kind of species, whether it be human or animal, socialisation with its own kind is crucial, especially in early infancy. It is also regarded as necessary for the development of attachments, attachments which are intense, emotional ties to specific people.

It has also been concluded by many theorists that there is a critical period for attachment to take place, and if this does not occur to be a strong and secure attachment the outcome is likely that the individual will have some emotional difficulties later in life. Research such as the ‘strange situation’ has been used to classify the infants basic attachment, the crucial feature in this experiment was the sensitivity of the mother.

Through out research and various experiments the effects on mental health have been associated with the lack of maternal care at an early age.

(Gross, 2005)

Reference List

R.L Atkinson, R.C.Atkinson, E.E.Smith, D.J.Ben, E.R,Higard. Introduction to Psychology, Tenth Edition, 1990, Harcourt Brace Jovanich Publishers, Orlando, Florida,USA

C.Beckett, Human Growth and Development. 2002, Sage Publications Ltd, 6 Bonhill Street, London Uk

R.Gross.Psychology the Science of Mind and Behaviour, 2005, Fifth Edition, Hoddder Arnold, Hodder Headline Group, 338 Euston Road, London, UK

M.Jarvis, E.Chandler.J.Russel. Angles on Child Psychology, 2001, Nelson Thornes Ltd, Delta Place, 27 Bath Road, Cheltenham, UK

Accessed 25/1/07.

P.H.Mussen, J.J.Conger, J.Kagen, A.C Huston, Child Development and Personality, Sixth Edition, 1984, Harper & Row Publishers, Harper & Row, Publishers Inc, 10 East 53d Street, New York, USA

. K.V.Wagner, Accessed 25/1/07

.Accessed 25/1/07.

H.Thomson, C.Meggitt. Human Growth and Development for Health and Social Care,1997, Hodder & Stoughton, Hodder Headline Plc, 338 Euston Road, London, UK

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