Literature Review
Konrad Lorenz, an ethologist, proposed that aggression is a natural instinct necessary to ensure the survival of the human species (Aronson, 2004). Lorenz’ argument is based off his observation of nonhumans, stating that “aggression is of prime evolutionary importance which allows the young animals to have the strongest and smartest mothers and fathers” (Aronson, 2004). Psychologist Sigmund Freud had like ideas, stating that humans are born with a natural instinct towards life, called Eros, and an equally strong death instinct in which he called Thanatos, which both lead towards aggressive tendencies (Aronson, 2004). Freud also believed that aggressive behavior had to be released somehow, or it would build inside and produce illness, thus is described in his notion of hydraulic theory (Aronson, 2004).
In his Science of Human Behavior (1953), B.F. Skinner agrees with Freud in that in order to relieve oneself of aggressive tendencies, there needs to be an outlet. Skinner goes on to state that:
The belief that certain kind of “pent-up” behavior causes trouble
until the organism is able to get rid of them is at least as old as the
Greeks. Aristotle, for example, argued that tragedy had a beneficial
effect in purging the individual of emotional behavior. On the same
analogy it has been argued that competitive sports permit both the
participant and the spectator to rid themselves of aggressive tendencies.
According to James Neill, professor at the Centre for Applied Psychology, University of Canberra, there are three theories of aggression: the Cognitive neoassociation theory, the cognitive-social perspective, and the general aggression model (n.d.). In the cognitive neoassociation theory, aggression is triggered by aversive stimuli. In the cognitive-social perspective, social learning, reward, and punishment result in aggressive behavior. And in the general aggression model, the situation that the person finds themselves in could trigger aggressive tendencies (Neill, n.d.). To touch on Neill’s findings, Kenneth Moyer (1968) classified seven different forms of aggression, ranging from biological and evolutionary standpoint: 1) Predatory – being attacked; 2) Inter-male – competition amongst males, for example, to win a female’s affection; 3) Fear-induced – attempting to run from danger; 4) Irritable – frustration taken out on a targeted person; 5) Territorial – defending a specific area against an intruder; 6) Maternal – a mother protecting her offspring from threats; 7) Instrumental – to attain a goal, for example, in football (Moyer, 1968).
To narrow the causes of aggressive behavior, many experts agree that the major factors that play a part in aggressive tendencies in humans can be traced to biological and psychological causes, observational and social learning, and alcohol-induced factors. Scientists have shown that there are two areas in the brain that either regulate or affect aggression; the amygdala and the hypothalamus (Wikipedia.org, 2007). Studies have shown that the average 12-year-old has been exposed to over 100,000 acts of violence on TV. And statistics have revealed that 75% of people that were arrested for violent crimes such as murder and assault were legally drunk at the time of arrest (Aronson, 2004).
According to Aronson (2004), aggressive behavior in humans as well as some animals can be traced to an area in the brain called the amygdala. When the amygdala is electrically stimulated, it causes the organism to become violent; when that area is blocked, aggressive behavior is calmed (Aronson, 2004). However, these reactions can be influenced by societal factors – as shown in the observation of a male monkey in the presence of other less dominant monkeys. When the male monkey’s amygdala was stimulated, he became aggressive towards the less dominant monkeys. But when his amygdala was stimulated in the presence of more dominant monkeys, he ran away, because he had learned prior to the experiment to fear the other monkeys (Aronson, 2004).
The hypothalamus also plays a role in aggressive behavior. This area actually serves as a regulator in terms of aggression (Wikipedia.org, 2007). When the hypothalamus is electrically stimulated, like the amygdala, aggressive behavior ensues, however, it “has receptors that help determine aggression levels based on their interactions with the neurotransmitters serotonin and vasopressin” (Wikipedia.org, 2007).
The male hormone testosterone also has an affect on aggression in humans and animals (Aronson, 2004). James Dabbs and his colleagues discovered higher testosterone levels in those convicted of violent crimes then those convicted of nonviolent crimes, and in another independent study, animals that were injected with testosterone became more aggressive than those who were not injected with the male sex hormone (Aronson, 2004).
The neurotransmitter serotonin is another chemical with implications for aggression. Serotonin was shown to have a negative correlation with aggression, which helps to explain the aggression-reducing and calming effects of serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as Prozac (Wikipedia.org, 2007). Another neurotransmitter, vasopressin, has also been shown to increase aggressive behavior, but in only when present in large amounts within the anterior hypothalamus (Wikipedia.org, 2007).
Another major causal factor of aggression is alcohol-related. Controlled laboratory experiments have revealed that those who become legally drunk are apt to respond more violently when provoked than those who drank little or no alcohol (Aronson, 2004). According to Kathryn Graham (1980), there are four roles that are prominent in alcohol-induced aggression: “the direct-cause paradigm, the indirect-cause paradigm, indirect-cause conditional upon motive for drinking, and the predisposition/situation paradigm.”
In the direct-cause paradigm, it is shown that those who drink become less inhibited and more prone to act aggressively, as the alcohol has an anaesthetizing effect on certain areas of the brain that control “socially unacceptable behaviors such as aggression” (Graham, 1980). In the indirect-cause paradigm, changes such as in thinking, awareness, and processing are affected by alcohol, thus causing aggressive behavior that would not have normally been displayed had the person not become drunk. In the indirect-cause conditional upon motive for drinking theory, it is said that because alcohol reduces tension and anxiety, ironically increasing the probability for aggression. The fourth theory of predisposition/situation states that a person who is concerned more than the average person regarding personal power is also more aggressive and more likely to be a heavy drinker (Graham, 1980).
Alcohol-induced aggression can also cause two types of aggressive behavior: self-inflicted injury or suicide (Berman and McCloskey, 2003), and displaced aggression (Aviles, Earleywine, and Pollock, 2005). In non-experimental studies, two thirds of individuals that inflicted pain upon themselves also used alcohol at the same time, and many had blood alcohol concentrations greater than .10. Those who attempted suicide and even those who were successful had elevated blood alcohol concentrations (Berman and McCloskey, 2003). “In sum, alcohol intoxication appears to be an important correlate of self-aggressive behaviors across the spectrum of lethality” (Berman and McCloskey, 2003). With displaced aggression induced by alcohol, if the person cannot aggress toward the initial provocateur, they will aggress toward an innocent third party (Aviles, Earleywine, and Pollock, 2005).
Observational learning and social learning is another major factor in the cause of aggressive behavior. According to Richard Griggs (2006), “observational learning is learning by others and imitating their behavior and plays a major role in human learning.” A famous experiment conducted by Albert Bandura which involved kindergarten-aged children and a large inflated clown doll called Bobo proved this point. When the adult demonstrated aggressive acts towards the doll, the children later did the same, and even repeated some of the same words. The children who had not witnessed the aggressive adult were much less likely to engage in such aggressive behavior with the Bobo doll (Griggs, 2006). According to Alexander Thomas, psychiatrist at the New York University Medical School, “…aggression in childhood is the emotional trait that is the strongest predictor of later maladjustment” (Goleman, 1988).
Another popular example of social learning is the affects of violence and the media on today’s children and adults. According to Aronson (2004), “the more violence individuals watch on TV as children, the more violence they exhibit years later as teenagers and young adults.” Aronson also states that “violence in the media can and does have a profound impact on the behavior of adults,” as shown here in this example:
Several years ago, a man drove his truck through the window
of a crowded cafeteria in Killeen, Texas, and began shooting
people at random. By the time the police arrived, he had
killed 22 people, making this the most destructive shooting
spree in American history. He then turned the gun on
himself. In his pocket, police found a ticket stub to Fisher
King, a film depicting a deranged man firing a shotgun
into a crowded bar, killing several people.
Video games, according to Craig Anderson and Karen Dill (2000), also play a huge role in aggressive behavior. They state that repeated violent game playing increases aggressive personalities. Anderson and Dill relate this to the bloody Columbine shooting that took place in 1999, where Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold went on a shooting spree, killing 13 and wounding 23, and finally turning the guns on themselves. It was found that Harris and Klebold were fascinated by the video game Doom, and acted out their fantasies in real life on that vengeful and fateful day (Anderson and Dill, 2000).
Topic Discussion
From these findings, aggression appears to be not only innate, but also a learned characteristic. But how we express it varies from person to person, culture to culture. Biology plays probably the largest part of all in aggressive tendencies, as shown in the prisoners who were incarcerated for violent crimes such as murder who had more testosterone than those who were in prison for non-violent crimes. And it makes you wonder, where would our society be without the discovery of medications that actually help reduce aggressive behavior?
Relevance to Personal Interest
This topic was chosen because I wanted to know the why’s and how’s of aggressive behavior. There had to be more than just the infamous studies of the effects of violent media on human beings, and indeed, I found that it can actually be learned, through what we call observational learning. We must be careful as adults and as parents and guard our children from violence and negative behavior, not only from the media but as well as in the household.
Summary
As we have seen, aggressive behavior stems from not only biological factors, but also from learning from our surrounding environment as well as what is shown in the media. While their may be two defined forms of aggression, both hostile and instrumental, we must continue to carefully study the two closely and know how to differentiate the characteristics of each. By understanding where aggression stems from, medical experts and doctors can better treat their patients and contribute to a healthier, safer, society.
References
Anderson, C.A. & Dill, K.E. (2000). Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and
Behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality, 772-790.
Aronson, E. (2004). The Social Animal. 6: 201-239.
Aviles, F., Earleywine, M., & Pollock, V. (2005). Alcohol’s effect on triggered displaced
aggression. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 108-111.
Berman, M.E. & McCloskey, M.S. (2003). Alcohol intoxication and self-aggressive behavior.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 306-311.
Cliffnotes. (2007). Aggression. Retrieved July 6, 2007, from
25438,articleId-25408.html.
Goleman, D. (1988). Aggression in children can mean problems later. Retrieved
July 8, 2007, from
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Graham, K. (1980). Theories of intoxicated aggression. Canadian Journal of Behavioural
Science, 141-158.
Griggs, R. (2006). Psychology: A Concise Introduction. 135 – 136.
Moyer, K. (1968). Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Women and Men. 5: 147.
Neill, J. (n.d.). Social Psychology: Aggression. Retrieved July 6, 2007, from
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science of Human Behavior. 201, 373.
Wikipedia. (2007). Aggression. Retrieved July 6, 2007, from
.
