To what extent has psychology revealed the nature of memory?
To what extent has psychology revealed the nature of memory? The extent that psychological research has revealed the nature of memory can be shown in through research and studies into different aspects of different types of memory. Research has mostly looked into the encoding, storage and duration of short-term and long-term memory. Jacobs (1887) did research into the capacity of short-term memory with the aim to investigate how much information can be held int he short-term memory. To do this, he devised a technique called the "serial digit span", which involved strings of digits which had to be recalled in the order in which they were given. He conducted a laboratory experiment in which participants were given these strings of number and asked to recall them in order, with the strings starting with 3 digits and increasing until the participant consistently failed to correctly reproduce the findings. He found that the average length of string remembered was between 5 and 9 items, with digits being recalled better than letters. Individual differences such as age affected the average amount of items correctly recalled, thus the conclusion that the short-term memory's capacity was 7±2 (between 5 and 9) digits. This research, however, found that other factors could affect the length of the string remembered, such as memory techniques like "chunking". The research was also did
Gather relevant information regarding the memories of people with regard to many different factors.
Task My task during this statistics coursework is to gather relevant information regarding the memories of people with regard to many different factors. I shall need to create numerous hypotheses that are sensible and are practical to carry out, get information relevant to the hypotheses and present the data in different methods which are relevant to the experiment. Hypothesis My primary hypothesis is that pictures are easier to memorise than words, and words are easier to memorise rather than numbers. I have come to this prediction as I personally find pictures easier to remember because you can relate it to something and it is visual, visual objects are said to be easier to memorise. Secondly words are easier to memorise than numbers because words can be easily related to ones thinking and therefore people can remember them easily while numbers are harder to relate. However all this is based on what technique an individual uses to memorise things. My secondary hypothesis is that females have better memories than men, I have decided to test this as this is what most women stereotype, especially after they are married the husband I always the one forgetting everyone while the wife remembers every single detail even the tiniest thing such as their anniversary. My third Hypothesis is that memory declines as a person becomes older, I have based this theory on that the
Memory is studied within the Branch of psychology known as Cognitive psychology. Cognitive Psychology is a research field that strongly focuses on mental processes and the storage and the retrieval of information within the human brain.
Memory Assignment. Introduction: Memory is studied within the Branch of psychology known as Cognitive psychology. Cognitive Psychology is a research field that strongly focuses on mental processes and the storage and the retrieval of information within the human brain. The Multi-store Model. Atkinson and Shiffrin in the year 1971 produced the concept of the multi store model. Attkinson and Shiffrins model was very simple, but it showed very clearly how the major memory stores worked. The sensory memory was basically a way of data entering into our brain, if the sensory memory did not pick anything up we simply cannot recall it, but if information is picked up (i.e. the name of someone or the colour of something) this information is then passed on to the short term memory. Before this information is forwarded to the STM it has to be processed, or encoded. Processing can happen in many ways; some of these encoding methods are more favourable to our memory stores than others by either the use of sound or sight (Acoustically or visually) or by the use of semantics (the meaning of a word). The way the encoding works in the STM is by either the brain remembering the sound of the word or that it rhymes with another word from the LTM (Long Term Memory), or how the item looked like (visually). Research into STM and LTM. Miller in the year 1956 investigated into the capacity of
Case Studies relating to the Multi Store Model of Memory.
Case Studies The multi store model is the process of long term and short term memory. It explains what each type of memory is. Short term memory is memories which are less important, while Long term memory is memories which are very important. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the person's life and history is analyzed to search for patterns and causes for behaviour. The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many others. On the other hand, laboratory experiments are carried out in a laboratory where variables are controlled. Therefore it does not apply to the real world, which means that it has a low ecological validity. The case studies relating to the multi-store model are Clive Wearing and HM case studies. Clive Wearing contracted a virus in 1985; the virus attacked an area of the brain crucial for memory, which left him, leaving with amnesia. He has no memory of any event or memory in his life. Clive Wearing can remember: - * his wife not his children or any other family members * how to play the piano - but he is unaware of it * key numbers and names from early childhood * speech and has a good vocabulary * and read and write - doesn't remember doing either The case study of HM who suffered from epilepsy of such severity that it couldn't be controlled by drugs. HM underwent a drastic surgery, surgeons removed the
The Multistore model of memory
THE MULTI STORE MODEL OF MEMORY ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN - 1968 Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed this theory to explain the memory processes. They began by distinguishing three separate unitary stores: * STM - * LTM - * SENSORY STORE - this is information collected by our senses (ears, eyes, nose, mouth etc). The information remains only for a brief period by the sensory registers. Nonetheless, the capacity of the sensory store is very large and the method of encoding depends on the sensory store used, for example is it was the eyes, it would be visual codes. The SS is constantly receiving information but the majority is not paid attention to so stays only for a brief period. Info that is paid attention to then enters the STM. Information in the STM is in a fragile state - it decays quickly if not rehearsed or is displaced by incoming information (which is due to the fact STM has a limited capacity, 4 chunks). So, it has to be rehearsed In order to be transferred into the LTM, the individual has to undergo maintenance rehearsal. Initial rehearsal, maintains the information into the STM but if it is done enough, it enters the LTM. A & S proposed a direct relationship between the amount of rehearsal in the STM and the strength of the LTM - the more something is rehearsed, the better it will be remembered. EVIDENCE . Sperling - research has been undertaken to prove the
Stroop Test Experiment
Contents Page TITLE: PAGE NO: Abstract ..........................................................................................................................................................2 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................3 Hypotheses......................................................................................................................................................4 Methodology....................................................................................................................................................5 Results.............................................................................................................................................................6 Discussion.......................................................................................................................................................7 Bibliography.....................................................................................................................................................8 Appendix.......................................................................................................................................................9-12 ABSTRACT This research aimed to
Summarise the aims and context of Bennett-Levy & Marteau (1984) Fear of animals: What is prepared?
Bennett-Levy & Marteau (1984) 'Fear of animals: What is prepared?' - MODEL ANSWER . Summarise the aims and context of Bennett-Levy & Marteau (1984) 'Fear of animals: What is prepared?' One key explanation for phobias is that it is a learnt behaviour through classical and operant conditioning. According to Walker (1984), although many experiments can explain species fears via classical conditioning that does not mean that there are no other alternative explanations of phobias. This core study focuses on the suggestion that a predisposition to acquire certain fears is inherited because it enhances an individual's survival and reproduction. This is an example of the evolutionary approach to understanding behaviour. Seligman (1971) believes that humans are biologically predisposed to fear certain animals such as snakes. He found that two to four small electric shocks were enough to induce a phobia to pictures of spiders or snakes; however a larger series of shocks were required to induce the same sort of phobic response to pictures of flowers. Marks (1969) also support this view as the distribution of animal phobias is non-random and there does not appear to be an equal distribution of traumatic experience with these animals. Mineka et al (1980), however, found that wild-reared monkeys showed considerable fear of real, model and toy snakes, whereas laboratory reared
What is meant by term 'memory' and what models have been used to explain it's functioning?
What is meant by term 'memory' and what models have been used to explain it's functioning? Memory research started out under the behaviorist influence and looked at the process only in the terms as input and output. With the advent of the information processing approach, models were proposed for the activity taking place in between. Memory can be characterized as any one of the following: * The mental function of retaining data, i.e. learning * The proposed storage system which holds the data * The data that is retained These are the stages of memory and each is necessary but not sufficient condition for memory to have taken place. Memory can fail at any of these stages. William James (1890) first suggested a distinction between, as he termed them, primary and secondary memories. The evidence still strongly supports two distinct stores (STM and LTM). STM has duration of less than thirty seconds and has a capacity of 5-7 chunks, whereas LTM is supposedly unlimited. The explanations of forgetting information that are stored in the STM are due to it being irrelevant, or interference, but data in the LTM is due to lack of accessibility rather than availability. The Multistore model of memory was introduced by Atkinson and Shriffen (1968) and Waugh and Norman (1965). It shows that information is stored and rehearsed in specific places in the brain, and some is briefly
Multistore Model – Akinson and Shiffrin (1968)
Multistore Model - Akinson and Shiffrin (1968) Akinson and Shiffrin suggested that memory was comprised of three separate stores, the Sensory Memory Store, the short-term memory and the long-term memory. Information is simply rehearsed in the STM and if rehearsed sufficiently is transferred to LTM. Information to be recalled from LTM passes back through STM producing the associated response. Recall/Retrieval Attention Output Rehearsal Evidence for Multi-store model: . Primacy-Recency Effect - Atkinson (1970). When presented with lists to remember we recall first and last items best. First items rehearsed into LTM and last items recalled from STM. Ones in middle less likely to be recalled. This is evidence for existence of several stores. 2. Brown -Peterson Technique suggests that if rehearsal of items is prevented then information does not enter LTM. 3. Amnesiacs caused by Korsakoffs Syndrome brought on by chronic alcoholism display sound STM functioning but impaired LTM. This suggests separate and distinct memory stores. 4. Shallice and Warrington (1970). Case study of K.F. who suffered brain damage because of motorbike accident. STM impaired but LTM intact. Evidence against Multi-store Model: . De Groot (1966) showed how expert chess players
Method of investigation.
METHOD Method of investigation The design that was chosen was a questionnaire because the experiment was a replication of Kuhn's Statements Test of Self-Attitudes (TST), which is a questionnaire (20 replies for one question). This type of design is useful because data can be gathered from large numbers of people about the issue of interest (i.e. self- concept). However, the problem with questionnaires is that respondents may answer to give a socially favourable impression. Also good sampling is vital if the results are to be of general use. Another disadvantage is that the 20 answers to the question given ("Who am I?") can yield a large amount of information that can be misinterpreted. An independent group's design was used and its advantages were that order effects, such as learning, fatigue or boredom did not influence a second condition, since the subjects only participated in one condition. An independent group's design is relatively easy and quick to set up. Demand characteristics were less of a problem as the subject only participated in one condition, and so were less likely to guess the aim of the study and act differently. The disadvantages of using an independent group's design were that the subject variables differed, which could have become confounding variables unless controlled for. More subjects were necessary because each subject was used only once so
