Behaviourism is generally thought to have been founded by John B. Watson, and he argued that the inner workings of the mind were introspective and therefore were difficult to examine; this led to laboratory experimentation where the study was of reaction to a stimulus (the stimulus response model.) Three main assumptions underpinned Watson’s view: Observable behaviour was the point of study rather than the internal thought process, specifically whether a particular stimulus led to a change in behaviour. That the environment is responsible for shaping behaviour, and that the individual is a slave to the environment and has no free will. Contiguity (how close to events must be for a connection to be made) and reinforcement (stimulus used to increase the likelihood of a behaviour occurring) are central to explaining the learning process.
Ivan Pavlov- (a Russian physiologist) “Only one thing in life is of actual interest to us- or physical experience. Its mechanism however remains a mystery.” When dogs were presented with food (unconditioned stimulus-stimulus that causes a natural response) they would salivate (unconditioned response- instinctive reaction to stimulus). Pavlov would present the food whilst a bell rang (conditioned stimulus) and found that with enough repetitions of this action the dogs would salivate when the bell rang, without the presentation of food (conditioned response- a learned reflex to a stimulus due to association with another inbuilt response.)
B. F. Skinner discovered operant conditioning; where rather than reflexive behaviour (eliciting a response) the result was instrumental behaviour (eliciting a response.)
The psychoanalytic school of thought refers to the theory of human personality (derived from Sigmund Freud’s work). It is the most comprehensive look at human nature and serves as the cornerstone for any clinical psychology or applied psychotherapy. It is simplistic to think of man as a complex animal seeking pleasure, that this animal’s personality is established in youth powered by inborn and genetic drives; that a person is unaware of their subconscious or fixated behaviours. Behaviourism is similar in this respect because it states that we seek out pleasurable stimuli, so both agree the pursuit of pleasure/comfort are paramount. Psychoanalysis and behaviourism are linked because behaviourism studies the reflexes of an individual; and a defence mechanism is a reflex: For example: To a man his partner (unconditioned stimulus) may be associated with sex, comfort, affection and feels affection for her in turn (unconditioned response) he is angry with her and shouts, this causes and argument and she leaves (conditioned stimulus) so the man learns that in order to prevent this happening again he must not repeat this action, so he doesn’t shout in front of his partner anymore (conditioned response) which leads to the man repressing his anger, and unconsciously displacing his anger onto his dog!
Behavioural psychology has benefited learning programmes: throughout the entire school system the world over simplified versions of both operant and classical conditioning can be seen. A child of six is rewarded with a sticker for good work, so they do the work and as they get older the stickers are not available, but they still continue to do the work. The fault with this is that if the stickers are not replaced with another incentive such as praise, (reinforcement) the original conditioning will become extinct.
John B. Watson is the most commonly mentioned when it comes to ethical issues in psychology. It is probable the reason for this is because of the notorious experiment on “Little Albert” wherein an infant was shown several animals, and displayed no fear. At the sight of a rat the child was subjected to a hammer banging on a metal bar behind him ( a fright) his response was to be afraid of the rat, and many other things white and fluffy (cotton wool or a Santa Clause beard). The child’s conditioning was not reversed. It could be argued that such an experiment involves more ethical issues today than it did back in 1920 when performed. These ethical issues are important in psychology, but it is difficult (especially in behaviourism) to make the balance between what is ethical with what is essential research.
Behaviourism argues we are the product of our environment that we have no free will, we are how we act; this seems dehumanising, but is Freud’s argument that we are slaves to our genetic make-up and upbringing and have very little access to our true thoughts any less degenerative? Psychoanalysis states human behaviour is determined by forces beyond our control; unconscious motives, sexual and aggressive drives, pressures of society and our genetic heritage. Behaviourism states we are formed by our environment; but the psychoanalyst opinions stated above “forces beyond our control” and “pressures of society” comply with behaviourism.
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one and train him to become any type of specialist I might select- doctor lawyer artist merchant chief, and yes even beggar man and thief.” John B Watson. Freud’s theory that the personality is formed in childhood and puberty meets Watson’s thought above in a way; that it is “all in the upbringing” the difference appears to be that psychoanalysis would allow development and then treat any problems afterwards, and that behaviourism could seek not also to treat existing problems but to prevent them or shape the personality to suit (another ethical issue raised by Watson).
Psychoanalysis is difficult to prove and therefore a sceptic may dismiss it, yet its theories apply to everyday life; “anally retentive” “biting remark” and the most obvious “Freudian slip” are used all the time. Behaviourism is spread throughout learning institutions and is critical in fields such as criminal psychology. The psychoanalytic and behavioural approaches have merit, but equally have their flaws. All sciences have their factions and psychology is no different; when dealing with study of the mind it is difficult to make an exact science. The benefit is, we have gained much information from both fields and many schools of thought have been born from them.
Reference:
Thomas, Roger K. (1994) Pavlov’s dogs
Skinner, B F (1973) Beyond freedom and dignity; London: Penguin
Smith, M K (1999) the behaviourist orientation to learning
Gross, R Mcllveen, R (1998) Psychology-a new introduction
Hayes, N (1994) Foundations of psychology
Compare and contrast any two psychological perspectives
Karen Wigham
15th December 2004
