Loehlin (1992) was interested in MZ twins only. MZ twins reared separately and together. Loehlin compared the personalities of MZ twins reared apart with those reared together. The results are that MZ reared together were 51% Extraversion and 46% Neuroticism.And MZ reared apart were 38% Extraversion and 38% Neuroticism.
FRAMEWORK
1.Key concepts
HOW PHYSIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS SUCH AS THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYTEM
AFFECT BEHAVIOUR
The brain consists of 100 billion neurones (a cell that is part of nervous system and that carries an electric charge to other neurones). These connections of neurones are in the cortex (the pink, somewhat wrinkled, outerlayer of the brain which controls many of our higher functions, like speech and perception). Other assumption which belongs to brain is that it assume that specific functions are associated with specific areas, and it is called Localisation of function.
The cortex is made up of two distinct hemispheres, left and right, each of which basically controls the opposite side of the body. The hemispeheres can be broken down into smaller regions called lobes-valleys or fissures on the surface of the brain. These fissures and valleys make reliable landmarks. The two major landmarks are the central fissure, which divides each hemisphere roughly in half front-to –back, and the lateral fissure, which runs along the side of each hemisphere.
The frontal lobe is the area in front of the central fissure, and it interpretates emotion and experience.
The frontal lobotomy was an operation, popular in the 1940’s and 1950’s, which involved sectioning or removing portions of the frontal lobes in an attempt to treat cases of bipolar mood disorder or chronic pain. Later it was found as largely ineffective as a therapeutic procedure.
The frontal motor area is the area of the frontal lobes just before the central fissure which controls all voluntary movements of the muscles.
The perietal lobe is the pertion of the cortex just behind the central fissure and above the lateral fissure, whose primary functions is the sense of touch.
The temporal lobe is the region of the cortex below the lateral fissure. Its primary functions are hearing and memory.
The occipital lobe is the rearmost portion of the cortex, which is devoted solely to vision.
Sub-cortical structure
„Primitive brain“
-Limbic systém: a series of sub-cortical structures which connect the cortex with other parts
of the brain and which are important in many basic functions
-Hypothalamus:one of the most important elements in the limibic systém, the hypothalamus both regulates behaviours associated with hunger, thirst, sex and other basic drives, and plays a role in regulating hormonal functions
-Hippocampus : a structure within the limbic systém which is important to memory function
-Amygdala: an almond-shaped structure in the limbic systém which plays a role in basic emotions and possibly memory and stimulus evalution
-Cerebellum : two small hemispheres located beneath the cortical hemispheres, at the back of the head. It play an imporant role in directing movement and balance
NEUROTRANSMITTERS –EXCITATORY, INHIBITORY
A neurotransmitter is a chemical that is required in the synapse to allow a charge to pass between neurons. Excitory neurotransmitter allows charge to be passed from one neuron to the next (e.g.:like stepping on the accelerator while driving a car) . Inhibitory neurotransmitter prevents charge from being passed from one neuron to the next (e.g.:like stepping on the brakes while driving a car).
2.Assumptions on which key concepts are based
INNATE DISPOSITION AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES AND THEIR EVALUATION
RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF INHERITED AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS UPON BEHAVIOUR, SUCH AS INTELLIGENCE
Gottesman (1991) and his Correlational study. Monozygotic twins (MZ) and Dizygotic twins (DZ) reared together (shared the same environment). If one twin has schizofrenia, then what is the chance that the other twin will develop it. The results are that in MZ twins it is 48% and in DZ twins it is 17%. The difference between MZ and DZ is that MZ has identical structure and are from one egg. And DZ twins has similar structure, like normal sisters and brothers.
Loehlin (1992) was interested in MZ twins only. MZ twins reared separately and together. Loehlin compared the personalities of MZ twins reared apart with those reared together. The results are that MZ reared together were 51% Extraversion and 46% Neuroticism.And MZ reared apart were 38% Extraversion and 38% Neuroticism.
3.Evaluation of assumptions
USE OF ALTERNATIVE PERSPECTIVES AS A POSSIBLE EVALUATIVE STRATEGY
It is the only approach which tries to explain behaviour in terms of the workings of the physical systém. By contrast with Psychodynamic approach and Freud. He was trained in neurology and that the systém was biologically based, but it uses concepts which are purely psychological, not physiological. Behaviourism is even more extreme, regarding the body as a ´black box‘ whose workings are neither known nor relevant to explaining the relationships between stimuli and behviour.
4.Theoretical explanations of behavioural change
USE OF DRUGS;SURGICAL PROCEDURES
If all that is psychological is first physiological, then to change behaviour we must change/influence physiology. One way how to do this is by drugs. One of them is use of psychoactive drugs. Which we divide into three types. Stimulants, Depressant and lastly anti depressant. Pychoactive drug is any chemical agent and has noticeable effect on behaviour.
Firstly, the stimulants. Stimulants increases activation of the Central Nervous Systém (CNS) and the autonomic nervous systém by increasing levels of dopamine (functions-motor activity, coordiantion, emotion and memory). There is increase of heart rate, breathing awarness etc. Stimulants are mainly found in coffeine, nicotine and amphetamines.
Than we have depressants., which decrease CNS activity by enhancing the effects of the neurotransmitter GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid) and function of GABA are anxiety, arousel, learning etc. Depressants are mainly found in alcohol and valium.
And lastly, there are anti-depressants. This drug is used to treat clinical depression. A new class of anti depressants has been developed, which is called SSRI’s (selective serotonin receptake inhibitors). One example is Prozac. And other way how to change the behaviour is Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). It involves applying an electric shock approximately about 100 volts to one side of the brain or both sides to induce a seizure. When the patient recovers, they remember nothing from the treatment but report a relief of symptoms. It is repeated 6 times over 3-4 weeks usually.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES, SUCH AS EMOTION
First of all we should explain what is emotion. Emotion is love, anger, fear etc.
In the 1884/1885 there was James-Lange theory fo emotion. This theory was counter intuitive. It means that it goes against our common sense idea of emotion. Their ideas was that the perception of an emotion-arousing stimulus (for instance-a hungry bear) leads to a behavioural response, probably running away. This response involves changes and interpretates them as the emotion of fear. In the classic phrase we do not run because we are scared, but we are scared because we run.
Perception of stimulus ⇒ behavioural response ⇒ change ⇒ experience
in physiology of emotion
Problems with this theory are that:
-physiological changes také place slowly-emotions appear to be instantaneous
-there should be different levels of arousal for different emotions-this is no the case
-if emotion is caused simply by levels of adrenaline, then we should be able to create emotions by giving people adrenaline
Perhaps what is needed for emotio is a certain level of arousal and some kind of interpretation of the arousal.
METHODOLOGIES
1.Methods
CORRELATIONAL STUDIES
-it is a method of analysing data to establish a relationship between variables
-example of correlational study is Loehlin and his correlational study of Monozygotic twins (MZ). MZ twins reared separately and together. Loehlin compared the personalities of MZ twins reared apart with those reared together. The results are that MZ reared together were 51% Extraversion and 46% Neuroticism.And MZ reared apart were 38% Extraversion and 38% Neuroticism.
-strenghts of correlational study are that it allows researchers to establish relationship (between genes and personality). And it is very useful method for investigations when experiments are impractical or unethical
-weaknesses of correlational study are that it cannot conclusively demonstrate a cause and effect relationship. And other weakness is that correlation does not mean causation (it does not mean that one causes other – relation)
EXPERIMENTS
-in controlled conditions, one variable is altered to test the effect this has on another variable (IV+DV)
-example of laboratory experiment is Schachter and Singer and their cognitive labelling (1962)
There is need of arousal and labelling to get emotion. If we are aroused, we will attempt to label it in some way. Emotion occurs when we label our arousal in a particular way. They have done an experiment. They had three groups of people. Each group had different independent variable (IV;variable that you as an experimenter want to change). First group was given an adrenaline and told what the consequences are. Second group was given an adrenaline but they were not told what the consequences are. And the third group was given a placebo ( it is a pill, but it does not influence us. It can be for example a vitamin and it is given to a people with words that it is some kind of pill which will cure them for example. And they believe to it and they can change from psychological view).All three groups were placed into „angry“ or „happy“ environment. Each person’s behaviour was observed and each of them was interviewed afterwards. The results were that, first group did what was expected , because they knew what the consequences are - they explained their arousal in terms of the drug. The second group experienced changing emotions, they experienced anger and happines. Even without knowing that they got adrenaline. They though it is some kind of drug but what kind of drug they did not know. And the third group had no significant change in emotions.
But the problem with this experiment was that they did not ask the participants what was the emotional state of the participants before they have done the experiment. IT was also unethical, because they gave them drugs. Therefore we can‘t do the experiment( no replication). It lacks of ecological validity- the environment around them could influence the results). And lastly if we believe in assumptios of biological psychology, then the cognitive labelling must have a biological basis.
In this case we meet here with independent and dependent variable. It is manipulation of Independent variable (IV) to determine the effect it has on Dependent variable (DV).We change IV to observe what effect it has on DV. In psychology when we form an experiment we consider two things. Independent and dependent variable.. Independent variable is the variable that you as an experimenter want to change. The experimenter control this. Dependent variable is the thing that we want to expect to change as a result of changing independent variable. The variable that we observe and measure. Dependent variable must always be a quantifiable data (data that can be represented in numbers). The IV in the research done by Schachter and Singer is expectations of participants and DV is emotional response to „happy + angry“ environment.
CASE STUDIES
-case study is a detailed description of a single individual, typically used to provide information on the person’s history and to aid in interpreting the person’s behaviour
-classic and also famous example of case study in the biological perspective is „Phineas Gage’s Story“ done by Harlow (1868)
Phineas Gage was the foreman of a railway. On 163th September 1848, an accidental explosion of a charge he had set blew his tamping iron through his head (3feet 7inches long;weighed 13,5 pounds;1,25 inches in diameter…). Thea tamping iron went in point first under his left cheek bone and completely out through the top of his head,landing about 25 to 30yards behind him. Phineas was knocked over but may not have lost consciousness even though most of the front part of the left side of his brain was destroyed. Harlow cured him within 10 weeks. His personality had changed so much. He was now fitful, irreverent and grossly profane, showing little deference for his fellows…His friends said he was „No longer Gage“.After his dead in 1960, he was studied at university.
2.Strenghts and limitations of methods
COMPARISON OF INVASIVE AND NON-INVASIVE TECHNIQUES
-invasive technique means altering or changing the brain. But there is ethical issue:do we have the right to change someone’s behaviour?Also the procedure can be harmful. And the effect it will have may not be reversible (how can we know that something had change?)
-non-invasiveis not altering/changing the brain
Example of invasive technique
Direct recording of neuronal activity
-microelectrodes are inserted into single neuronal cels and record their electrochemical activity
-e.g.:Hubel+Wiesel
-measured the activity of single neuronal cells in the visual cortex of monkeys
-by keeping the head still, various visuli stimulicould be presented to different areas of
the retina to discover both the area the cell represented and the stimuli it most responded to
The advantages are that it is very accurate way of investigating the living functions of brain areas. The disadvantages are that it is very time consuming (large number of neurones occupy a tiny part of brain). And second disadvantage is that it is invasive method-especially if applied to humans.
Example of non-invasive technique
External recording of brain activity
-it aims to detect brain activity from measurments made at the surface of the skull
-we have two types:
a)electroencephalograms (EEG)
-electrodes are attached to areas of the scalp, and the electrical activity of the brain beneath that they detect is amplified to reveal the frequency of the ‚brain wave‘. The frequency is the number of oscillations the wave makes in a second and ranges from 1-3hertz to 13 hertz or over
b)evoked potentials
-record the change in the electrical activity of an area of brain when an environmental stimuli is presented or a psychological task is undertaken
The advantages are that it is non-inavsive technique. And also it is practically useful, because it can distinguish illnesses for example. The disadvantages are that it is too difficult to specify localisation of function, because it is all around the head.
3.Ethics and controversies of research
USE OF HUMAN AND NON-HUMAN ANIMALS FOR RESEARCH
-the view of humans as „biological machines“ may seem unethical to some people
-investigating brain:invasive and non-invasive
-experiments are unethical
-biological treatments may not be used in an ethical way (e.g.:lobotomy)
Application
1.Effectivness of the perspective in explaining psychological and/or social questions
COMPARISON WITH OTHER PERSPECTIVES ON QUESTIONS SUCH AS AGGRESSION
The biological approach put emphasis on heredity, it should not seem suprising that aggression is viewed as an innate characteristic of human beings.
What is aggression? Aggression is deliberate attempt to harm or destroy an object or person.
Konrad Lorenz was one of the founders of ethology, an approach to the study of animal behaviour.Lorenz studied animal behaviour in natural settings not in the laboratory. Lorenz viewed aggression as a biologically-based drive which must be periodically satisfied through behavioural expresion. Normally, the expression of aggressive behaviour is controlled by environmentla cues called sign stimuli. Some stimuli are signs for the initiation of aggression. In many species, such as cichlid fish, the intrusion of one individual into the territory of another is a sign stimulus for attack. At the same time, other sign stimuli serve to control the aggressive behaviour. For example a wolfs: the loser in a fight between wolves lies down and exposes its jugular vein to the winner. This is a gesture of defeat and winner does not kill the loser. The gesture actually serves as a sign stimulus which inhibits further aggression by the victor. Lorenz believed that his discoveries about animal behaviour could be applied to humans. But there are problems with the humans. Because humans are innately violent (unlike Bandura). That aggression should not be entirely suppressed. This will lead to vacuum activities (randome extreme violence). And lastly human etchnology is so developed that we can be violent at the distance. Like we can kill even if we are not at the place but 100 km from (e.g.: firing missiles).
Therefore Lorenz’s solution to the problem of aggression is that the aggression can not be prevented. And society should provide ways of releasing aggressive energy (this will minimise the harmful effects of aggression).
The problems with Lorenz are that how we can prove that aggression is innate. And there is no real evidence for sign stimuli in humans.
Another explanation of aggression is Localisation of Function and Delgado. Localisation of function means that there is belief that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific psychological processes. They try to identify the areas of the brain which control aggressive behaviour.The focus has been on the hypothalamus and the amygdala, in the evolutionarily older regions of limbic system.
Delgado stimulated the „aggression“ centres of monkeys by remote control. The aggression was not random, but depended on their position in the hierarchy. But there are mayn problems because it ignores the interconnectedness of the brain’s functions. And it is unethical (because as a human you were born to be allow to be aggressive).
2.Recommendations for change in lifestyles
CONTRIBUTION OF THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE TO CHANGES IN EDUCATION, WORK OR THERAPY
If all that is psychological is first physiological, then to change behaviour we must change/influence physiology. There are three main ways how to do this.
One of them is use of psychoactive drugs. Which we divide into three types. Stimulants, Depressant and lastly anti depressant. Pychoactive drug is any chemical agent and has noticeable effect on behaviour.
Firstly, the stimulants. Stimulants increases activation of the Central Nervous Systém (CNS) and the autonomic nervous systém by increasing levels of dopamine (functions-motor activity, coordiantion, emotion and memory). There is increase of heart rate, breathing awarness etc. Stimulants are mainly found in coffeine, nicotine and amphetamines.
Than we have depressants., which decrease CNS activity by enhancing the effects of the neurotransmitter GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid) and function of GABA are anxiety, arousel, learning etc. Depressants are mainly found in alcohol and valium.
And lastly, there are anti-depressants. This drug is used to treat clinical depression. A new class of anti depressants has been developed, which is called SSRI’s (selective serotonin receptake inhibitors). One example is Prozac.
And other way how to change the behaviour is Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). It involves applying an electric shock approximately about 100 volts to one side of the brain or both sides to induce a seizure. When the patient recovers, they remember nothing from the treatment but report a relief of symptoms. It is repeated 6 times over 3-4 weeks usually. Originally applied to schizoprenics.
And lastly psychosurgery.It is prefrontal lobotomy involved severing the connection between the frontal lobes of the brain and the deeper underlying structures in the hope of producing calm and rational behaviour.
