The concept of adolescence is relatively new. According to Shaffer (1993) it is an “invention” of the 20th century. The concept of the teenager is even more recent as this developed in the 1950s. This shows that adolescence is socially constructed and therefore a product of time and context, which reinforces the idea that it, is culturally specific.
Sub - cultural differences in identity formation during adolescence provide further support that this is culturally constructed. Adolescents from ethnic minorities tend to take longer to achieve identity formulation. This makes sense because it is probably harder to curve out an identity if the ethnic identity deviates greatly from the dominant majority.
The delinquent subculture is further evidence of cultural differences. Hargreaves (1967) research on subcultures in a school population of 14 to 15 years old, boys in north – east England revealed that the delinquent subculture tends to comprise low achievers, and status and popularity are gained from anti – social behaviour rather than academic achievement. The subculture provided a sense of success and acceptance that was not available to the boys within the mainstream culture. The growing phenomenon of underachieving boys shows that the delinquent subculture is not necessarily based on the lack of ability. It has appeal to students who do well within the mainstream school culture if they had the motivation to do so. This shows that the cultural context is critical in adolescent identity formation because it is culture that constructs the deviant and non – deviant routes to this.
Cross cultural differences in attitudes to education exist Stevenson et al (1986) found that students in Asian cultures spend more time at school and complete more work. There is a strong belief in the long – term benefits of hard work and a high value placed on education. As a result, a more positive attitude to education exists than in western cultures.
Research evidence against:
Barry, Bacon and Child (1957) found a high level of cross cultural similarity in the socialisation pressures experienced by boys and girls. Achievement and self – reliance were encouraged more in boys, and obedience, responsibility, and nurturance were encouraged more in girls, in both individualistic and collectivist cultures.
Offer et al (1988) study on the positive relationships adolescents had with their parents was conducted in the individualistic and collectivist culture and shows that there is also similarity across cultures.
A02 - Criticisms:
- The importance of cross cultural research: cross cultural research is important because it shows us to what extent social context affects adolescent’s development. Cultural values, such as individualism versus collectivism, have a major impact on adolescent development. This cultural influence is not surprising since adolescents are being socialised into becoming members of their society.
- Minimising cultural differences: exposure to the universal culture of American media (television and internet) may reduce cultural differences. TV and internet are establishing a universal and fairly American culture for today’s adolescents. Programmes such as “friends” and ‘Buffy the vampire slayer’ create a new set of adolescent norms and values.
- Strong research evidence: the amount and variety of research on cultural differences and differences within the same cultures over time provides indisputable evidence that adolescence is culturally rather biologically constructed.
- Ethnocentrism: cross – cultural research is often biased because of the researchers own cultural viewpoint, which invalidates the findings and interpretations. The western norm is often imposed on other cultures, which is culturally biased.
- Linguistic difficulties: research across cultures relies on transition, which can be a source of bias, as meaning can get lost in the translation. Other cultures understanding of adolescence may also differ.