According to psychoanalytic theory each person experiences conflict between the three different parts of the psyche. The reason for this is for society to exist our unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses have to be kept in check. This results in us being torn between our desires to fulfill our impulses, and our wish to live in a peaceful, ordered society. (Freud, 1930)
Another key aspect to Freud’s theory is that people move through a series of development stages. There are five stages and are often known as the psychosexual stages. Each stage is characterized by a focus on a different part of the body. Freud believed the ‘libido’ or sexual drive is fixated on a certain part during particular periods of development.
The first stage is the oral stage which occurs from birth to around one and a half. At this stage all a baby can do is use its mouth for. Therefore libido pleasure is centered on the mouth and its activities such as sucking, feeding and crying. The second stage is the anal stage where the libido focuses on the anus. This is when the child is around 18 months to three years as the ego develops. The child develops a sense of control over their own body and finds they can control the action of their bowels. The child comes to derive pleasure from retaining and releasing faeces. The third stage is phallic stage when the child is around three to five years. The dominant site for the libido is the genitals. This is the first time children become strongly aware of sexual differences between boys and girls. The fourth stage is the latency period and is between five to eleven years. The libido is less engrossed in parts of the body and little development occurs. The child is more concerned with friendships and learning. The final stage is the genital stage which begins in puberty and lasts for the rest of the individual’s life. The libido again focuses on the genitals but the aim is to have sexual relations with someone else. (Haralambos & Rice, pg 538)
Freud believed if we did not receive the right amount of gratification during these stages we would become fixated in a particular stage. We then continue to have the same demand for gratification that we had throughout the rest of our life. This condition is thought to produce a variety of ‘neurotic behaviours’ depending on the type of fixation. To deal with a fixation Freud believed that we must go back and resolve the issues which led to the fixation. Such fixations could lead to characteristic ‘personality types’ such as oral receptive, oral aggressive, anal expulsive, and anal retentive. A fixation during the phallic stage could result in sexual deviances and a weak or confused sexual identity. (Cardwell et.al, pg 887)
Another factor that affects the development of personality is the use of ego defences. These defences happen during the latency period and the ego uses these to reduce anxiety that arises from the id and its unacceptable demands. One of these defences is Displacement which is redirecting repressed desires, impulses and anger elsewhere. For example if we have an argument with a friend we take it out on our partner. Sublimation is another, which is transforming aggressive and sexual desires into some sort of socially acceptable expression such as kickboxing. Another is Projection which is when you blame someone else for your own unacceptable impulses. An example of this is accusing someone of not liking you when really it is you who doesn’t like that person. Denial is another which is a major form of self protection, instead of facing what has or is happening you deny it. An example of this could be a person whom is terminally ill but will not except they are dying.
The most important defence mechanism in Freud’s theory is Repression. This happens when the ego censors id impulses and blocks them from entering the conscious psyche. Ego uses Repression to protect itself from threatening or traumatic experiences. Examples of this could be the first time you realize you are not the centre of your mother’s life, or for some could be a more painful experience such as child abuse. (Haralambos & Rice, pg 140) Exaggerated use of defence mechanisms can lead to neurosis.
The paper will now look at Multiple Personality Disorder (DID) and how Freud’s theory explains it. Individuals with MPD suffer from constant memory loss due to the presence of two or more personalities that take over their consciousness at random times of the day. This swapping of personalities can last for minutes up to several weeks at a time. Psychodynamic theorists suggest hurtful experiences can lead to massive repression where the person unconsciously blocks the memory. Psychodynamic theorists see extremely traumatic childhood experiences, especially child abuse, as being central to the occurrence of MPD. They believe the individual is using different identities to cope by escaping elsewhere. (Cardwell et.al, pg 738)
We will now move onto the Biological model/approach. The biological model regards psychological disorders as a sign or symptom of an underlying physical dysfunction or organic disorder of the brain or nervous system. The different psychological disorders are all believed to be caused by different organic disorders. They may be genetically inherited and run in families. According to the biological model, certain genes can make people more vulnerable to disorders. Three types of studies have provided evidence to support this view, family studies, adoption studies and twin studies. In all three studies the biological families are tested to see if anyone else in the family of a person with a psychological disorder has had the same condition. The evidence from these studies did show that a person is more likely to suffer from a disorder if a parent or sibling had a similar disorder. (Weissman, 1987) In the adoption studies the adoption relatives are also studied and compared to the biological relatives. The results again showed a higher rate in the biological relatives. The problem with these studies however is it is difficult to separate genetic and environmental factors. (Haralambos, pg 136)
The biological model suggests psychological disorders could be due to an imbalance of chemicals in the nervous system and endocrine system. There could be too much or too little of certain neurotransmitter chemicals and hormones. One theory links depression to low levels of neurotransmitters serotin and norodrenaline. We will now look at schizophrenia and how the biological model explains it.
Schizophrenia is a serious mental disorder characterized by disordered thoughts, delusions, hallucinations, bizarre behaviour, and a loss of contact with reality. (Carlson, pg 510) There is still no universally agreed definition and there are different sets of criteria that are used for diagnosis and research purposes such as DSM-IV and ICD-10. Although these criteria share many similarities the lack of agreement about schizophrenia highlights the point that definitions of mental disorders are subjective and liable to change according to prevailing influences.
Researchers believe that schizophrenia is not a single disorder and have suggested various sub-types ICD-10 distinguishes between seven different sub-types, whereas DSM identifies five. These five are paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, and residual schizophrenia. Most psychiatrists only use the sub-types for individuals who fit the criteria exactly. (Cardwell et.al, pg 754)
The causes of schizophrenia are not fully understood it seems that it arises from various factors. There is strong evidence that biological factors have an important part to play. Schizophrenia is almost certainly a disorder with a strong genetic component as there is evidence that it runs in families. (Carlson, pg 511)
If genetic factors are important structural or biochemical abnormalities should be detectable in those diagnosed with schizophrenia. Advances in technology have enabled the medical profession to stud the live brains of those people with schizophrenia. MRI studies show quite definite structural abnormalities in the brains of many patients with schizophrenia. Brown et.al (1986) found decreased brain weight and enlarged ventricles. As more MRI studies are being taken, more abnormalities are being identified.
A number of viral infections have been suggested as an explanation, in particular Influenza A. (Torrey et.al, 1988, Torrey et.al, 1996) The suggestion is that if the mother is infected during pregnancy there is a pre-birth exposure to the Influenza A virus. A 25 – 30 week old foetus is thought to be most vulnerable because of accelerated growth in the cerebral cortex at this time. (Mednick et.al 1988) It is hypothesized that the viral infection enters the brain until activated by hormonal changes in puberty. (Cardwell, pg 759)
There is quite convincing evidence for both structural abnormalities and neurochemical abnormalities in the brains of individuals with schizophrenia, but there are conflicts as to whether they are a result from a genetic defect or from a birth defect leading to brain damage.
Bibliography
Cardwell, M,, Clark, L. & Meldrum, C. (1996) Psychology, 3rd Edition, Hammersmith, Collins.
Carlson, N.R (1998) Physiology of Behavior, Needham Heights, United States, A Viacom Company.
Freud, S (1930). Civilisation and its discontents. In A. Dickson (Ed.) (1991).Civilisation, society and religion. London, Penguin.
Haralambos, M. & Rice, D. (2002) Psychology In Focus: A level, Bath, The Bath Press.
Torrey, E.F, Rawlings, R.R., Ennnis,, J.M, Merrill, D.D. & Flores, D.S. (1996) Birth seasonality in bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder and stillbirths, Schizophrenia Research, 21 (3), pp 141-9
Torrey, E.F,, Rawlings, R. & Waldman, I.N. (1988) Schizophrenia births and viral diseases in two states, Schizophrenia Research 1, pp.73-7.
Weissman, M (1987). Advances in psychiatric epidemiology: Rates and risks for major depression. American Journal of Public Health, 77, 445-451.
