the hypothalamic explanation cannot account for the anorexic's derogatory self-image.Kaye et al. (1993) has suggested that some of the symptoms of anorexia, such as anxiety,obsessional and compulsive behaviour can be linked to an abnormality in anotherneurotransmitter - serotonin. Zinc deficiencies are also a common feature of anorexicpatients, and it has been suggested that symptoms of anorexia, such as weight loss anddepression, could be due to a low level of zinc in the body (Bakan et al., 1993). Someresearch suggests that endogenous opioids are also released during periods of starvation.The release of opioid chemicals may produce a feeling of elation and act as a biological
reinforcer (Marrazzi & Lubv, 1986).However, research into biological factors of anorexia is still ongoing, and at the moment itis difficult to establish a causal connection. i.e., the reported biological abnormalities of
anorexics may be as a result of the disorder, not a cause of it. Furthermore, biologicalexplanations of anorexia – genes or hypothalamus – do not currently offer the possibilityfor treatment; the other causal (aetiological) psychological explanations described here doalso suggest possibilities for treatment & so are useful for sufferers.
As biological accounts of anorexia cannot offer a definitive explanation of the disorder, alot of attention has been focused on psychological factors. One area of interest has beenin the typical anorexic 'personality'. Research in this area has revealed characteristics
common to anorexics prior to the onset of the illness. For instance, anorexic patients aredescribed as shy, compliant and perfectionists, and recorded high scores on the MinnesotaMultiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) for neuroticism, anxiety, social isolation and
depression; they also tend to lack self-esteem and are likely to maintain traditional,conservative views about the family and social norms (Davison & Neale 1998). It has alsobe noted (Pliner & Hadock. 1996) that anorexics tend to display high levels of socially
orientated perfectionism, i.e., they frequently try to conform to the standards set byothers even when these standards are unachievable (Davison & Neale 1998).Thepersonality of the anorexic can thus be seen to affect the decision to lose weight, theapproach to dieting itself, and may partly explain why dieting becomes so problematic. As
has been noted, anorexics often suffer from low self-esteem and depression, and they arealso far more likely to acquiesce to cultural demands and expectations. However, it shouldbe noted that starvation itself affects personality. In a study of semistarvation in maleconscientious objectors, Franklin et al. (1948), noted that all the men became obsessedwith food and displayed higher than normal levels of fatigue, irritability and moodiness,they also had poor concentration levels and reported a loss of interest in sex.
Social Learning Theory (SLT): the influence of media & culture – identification with rolemodel (attention, retention, reproduction & motivation). The media portrays thin womenvery positively & celebrities who have certain body shapes can be praised or vilified, e.g.,Heat magazine. Similarly, men are encouraged by media depictions of masculinity to bemuscular etc. & rates of body dysmorphia (an obsession with body shape/appearance) is
increasing in men, i.e. men obsessing about ‘bulking up’ & spending hours in the gym.However, many women are exposed to a huge amount of vicarious reinforcementregarding body size, but very few become anorexic.Dieting can be seen by some anorexics as a way of combating their negative self-image
and dealing with the problems in their lives. Dieting, and its positive effects, can bereinforced, for example, the anorexic may begin to feel that their body shape is changing,becoming more like their idea of what constitutes the `perfect' body. Also, clothes thatwould not previously fit now do, and other people may initially comment positively on theanorexic's weight loss. Frude (1998) argues that such seemingly minor events may act asa positive reinforcement of the dieting process. Dieting can even be negatively reinforced,
for instance, the anorexic may feel less dissatisfied with him or herself because they areexperiencing less self-critical feelings. Frude (1998) argues that the weight scalesthemselves provide anorexics with tangible `evidence' of what might be regarded by them
as improvement, i.e., weight loss. The perfectionist nature of many anorexics may resultin the search for such `improvement' being taken to excessive lengths. However, as Frudepoints out, what is ultimately being reinforced, either through the behaviour of others, or
by the anorexic his or herself, is not dieting per se, but a prohibition on eating. Frudesuggests that as anorexia is about restricting one's food intake, and as it is fairly easy towork out the calorie content of most meals, the obsessional and perfectionist nature of
many anorexics leads to a calorie control regime which regards decreasing calorie intake
as being intrinsically valuable. Indeed, any deviation from the specified calorie target may
be regarded as ‘immoral', a sign of greed or lack of self-control (Frude 1998). The
anorexic's initial feeling of anxiety and isolation can be replaced by a sense of self-control,
the anorexic may see his or herself as `successfully' achieving their desired goal. This
sense of control can be extended to the anorexics family and friends, whose concern for
the anorexic's condition can be manipulated in a number of ways, for example, they may
be made to feel responsible in some way for the illness (Frude 1998). Finally, the process
of self-starvation can give the anorexic patient what is referred to as a ‘secondary gain'
(Frude, 1998, p87). Their duties and responsibilities will be set aside as a result of the
illness, they may even be treated in a more childlike way, thus anxieties about adult
pressures are alleviated, suggesting to the anorexic that there can be some advantages to
being ill.
Behaviourist/learning explanations ignore biological accounts: as anorexics are not studied
from birth it is impossible to identify exactly when & how anorexic behaviour is acquired
through either classical & operant conditioning or SLT. However, the learning approach
can explain why rates of anorexia are higher in women than men – as women are more
often judged, praised or criticised, for their body size & image than men.