Behaviour modification techniques, using the theories of classical conditioning, are known as counter-conditioning and include systematic desensitization, flooding and aversive conditioning (also known as aversion therapy). Counter-conditioning aims to condition replacement responses to stimuli that had triggered unwanted behaviours in the past (Myers, 2004).
Behaviour modification techniques using the theories of operant conditioning include positive and negative reinforcement, contingency management, and operant aversion therapy. Positive reinforcement aims to increase the frequency of a behaviour by giving the subject a reinforcer (or reward) for the behaviour. In the educational setting, the reinforcer may be combined with the feedback that the behaviour is correct and or appropriate, taking the form of praise, recognition, ticks, stamps, stickers, or good marks. (Favaro, 1986 in Laird, 1992). Some students may not respond to these less concrete reinforcers and a more concrete reward may be required. A token economy can be used in such situations. This is a system of secondary reinforcement that rewards behaviour with tokens that later can be exchanged for something the individual wants. It has been found effective with learning disabled students (Ross and Braden 1991). Positive reinforcement is the most popular method of behaviour modification used by teachers of its effectiveness.
The procedure for giving positive reinforcement is important in determining how fast the subject learns to change their behaviour. There are several types of reinforcement schedules. In fixed ratio reinforcement, the subject is given the reinforcer every fixed number of correct responses, for example he or she may be praised after every third correct response. Variable ratio reinforcement is reinforcement given after a variable number of correct responses, though usually around some average, for example, after correct responses numbers 1,5,6,9 and 12, average being every second correct response. The subject receiving fixed interval reinforcement will be reinforced after the first correct response after the predetermined interval of time has elapsed. In variable interval reinforcement, the reinforcer will be given after the first correct response after a variable time has elapsed, revolving around a predetermined average time. Variable ratio reinforcement has been shown to be most effective at achieving rapid learning that has a high level of resistance to extinction (Weiten, 2004). Due to its unpredictable frequency, the subject tries harder and harder to make sure that the reward is achieved though, initially, fixed ratio reinforcement may be needed to get the behaviour established.
Negative reinforcement aims to increase the frequency of a behaviour by removing from the subject something that it dislikes immediately upon the occurrence of the behaviour (Laird, 1992) for example, the subject may be told that if he or she performs the behaviour correctly, then they will be permitted to leave an adverse environment. Punishment, on the other hand, attempts to reduce the frequency of an undesired behaviour by depriving the subject of a privilege or imposing a penalty each time the undesired behaviour occurs (Laird, 1992). Despite scientific evidence of its relative ineffectiveness, parents tend to continue to apply punishment in their attempts to modify the behaviour of children. Teachers are prohibited by law from using corporal punishment but continue to punish with detentions that are supposed to discourage certain behaviours by having the consequence of depriving the students of their free time.
In contingency management, the therapist attempts to identify what aspect of the environment is acting as the reinforcer to maintain undesirable behaviour (Fernald, 1985) and then looks for ways to prevent this reinforcer from occurring so that the behaviour is not maintained. One type of contingency management is called ‘time-out’, where an attempt is made to prevent the subject from receiving reinforcement for an undesired behaviour by removing the subject from the social situation whenever the behaviour occurs (Laird, 1992). Timeout is used when the reinforcer is thought to be social attention or when the reinforcer cannot be identified and when it is the only way of preventing the reinforcer from being experienced. Since corporal punishment was discontinued, timeout has become popular in the education setting. It needs to be applied very carefully to work properly, as it can be very difficult to remove a child from a classroom quickly enough to avoid them receiving the attention from their peers that their disruptive behaviour was designed to get. If it is not done correctly, it will merely act as punishment. Where students who behave in an unacceptable manner are sent to a different room where they continue their work, with an experienced special education teacher to supervise, students receive more individualised attention and may prefer this working environment, thereby increasing the target behaviour in attempts to be sent back there.
Cognitive-behavioural therapies use modelling and cognitive restructuring, including rational-emotive therapy, to change behaviour. Cognitive-behavioural techniques make use of such behaviourist concepts as learning and reinforcement; but the things that are learned or reinforced are patterns of thinking, not externally visible responses though their purpose is ultimately to change the behaviour that results from the thinking (Laird, 1992).
In modelling, a wanted response is strengthened or an unwanted response is weakened by using a model to demonstrate the behaviour and the consequences of the behaviour (Laird, 1992). For example, in treating of some phobias, the therapist moves toward and interacts with the feared object, while the client follows each step (Ladouceur, 1983 in Laird, 1992). In this case, the therapist/model is demonstrating that there is nothing to fear, that there are no bad consequences (Laird, 1992). Standard school teaching could be seen as a form of modelling. The teacher acts as the model demonstrating the appropriate behaviour but teaching may lack the aspect of obvious consequences to support it. Students who can understand/imagine the consequences for themselves will learn well, but others may need reminding of consequences or they may need alterative operant approaches to motivate them (Coon, 1995).
Many disorders centre on how people think about themselves and the world. One way to change how people think about themselves is to change how they talk to themselves about themselves. People, who are busy telling themselves that they can’t do something, obviously aren’t going to do it (Meichenbaum, 1977 in Laird, 1992).
Albert Ellis developed rational-emotive therapy in which the subject’s irrational beliefs are challenged and alternatives to them explored (Laird, 1992). For example: believing “I am dumb and will never be able to be successful in school work” will interfere with a students learning. It needs to be replaced with more realistic self-talk such as, “I have limitations that make me need more time and practice to succeed at new school work, but I can learn if I take this time and do this practice.” Such therapy was found to be effective with students exhibiting hyperactivity and impulsivity and aggression (Robinson et al, 1999) and learning disabled students (Ross and Braden 1991).
The behaviour modification techniques that have appeared most effective in the special education setting are mainly positive reinforcement and contingency management (Ross and Braden 1991). Teachers should attempt to ensure that they provide frequent but variable ratio reinforcement for appropriate behaviour (Weiten, 2004) and that inappropriate behaviour is denied reinforcement by means of time out or other contingency management. As students vary in their learning styles, teachers may need to identify different techniques to be effective for individual students.
References
Coon, D. (1985). Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application, Seventh Edition, Minneapolis/St. Paul: West
Fernald, P.S, Fernald, L. Dodges, (1985). Introduction to Psychology, Fifth Edition, Wm. C. Brown: Iowa
Laird .D. James, Thompson, N.S., (1992). Psychology, Houghton Mifflin: Boston
Myers, D.G. (2004). Exploring Psychology, Sixth Edition, Worth: New York
Robinson, T.R., Smith, S.W., Millar, M.D., & Brownell, M.T. (1999). Cognitive behaviour modification of hyperactivity-impulsivity and aggression: A meta-analysis of school-based studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 195-203
Ross, P.A., & Braden, J.P. (1991). The effects of token reinforcement versus cognitive behaviour modification on learning-disabled students’ math skills. Psychology in the schools, 28, 247-256
Weiten, W. (2004). Psychology: Themes and Variations, Sixth Edition, Pacific Grove, CA: Brookes/Cole