On the other hand, Vaugn et al (1980) attachment may change when family circumstances change, attachment also might differ for each parent (Main and Weston, 1981). Main and Hesse stated that some babies do not comply with any of the three types that lead them to identify a fourth attachment. Marrone also criticized the procedure as a stressful event for the baby.
The attachment individuals develop in infancy and childhood affects development in adolescence. Adolescence is the transitional period from childhood and adulthood.
Coleman stated that an important aspect in making theories about adolescence is a focus on personal identity among cross cultures. Coleman then said that while other theories focuses on helping us understand adolescence. Unlike Hall’s and Erikson’s theory which dwells on conflicts that occur in adolescence, Coleman believed that what was needed is also a ‘theory of normality’. [3]
The theory is based on an observation of gender mixed children and adolescents (6-17) and what issues they were going through. There is no solid pattern to a specific age and there is a wide variable in personal circumstances. The results were that self-consciousness, sexuality and parental relationships change as they age. Concerns of different issues were also dealt with at different stages of adolescence for both genders.
Coleman then stated that Adolescents should deal one problem at a time to prevent chaos and adulthood becoming problematic. Contrary to this theory, every individual goes through different types of issues and maybe more than one at a time. It all depends on the extremity of the problem and the personal circumstances of the individual. Adolescence involves a number of changes and transitions from childhood to adulthood.
Gillian Stanley Hall made the first and formal theory of adolescence. Hall argued that adolescence is a time of ‘Storm and Stress’. Hall believes that ‘individuals repeat the biological and cultural evolution of humans’[4]. Evidence suggests that emotional responses from adolescents are deeper and more elusive than those other stages of lifespan development. Hall also believed that some adolescents display a serious indication of this theory such as delinquent behavior and mental health illness.
Adolescence is a time when maturing individuals have extreme and inconsistent feelings during this life stage. Csikszentmihalyi and Lason carried out a study that resulted in finding a lot of students having extreme mood swings in less than an hour that made this theory more valid. Although, the evidence did not show any background information or any hard evidence that validates Hall’s theory. Personal circumstances and background history should be taken into account before stating such theory.
On the other hand, Erikson believed that each stage of Lifespan development has two conflicting personality outcomes, a positive and a negative. Erikson believed that one of the biggest challenges that adolescents go through is a personality crisis. The start of puberty makes adolescents concerned where they stand in the community.
Erikson stated that not being able to establish a personal identity can cause role confusion which according to Erikson can affect several aspects of life such as intimacy, not being able to plan for the future, difficulty in dealing one issue at a time and worst, may develop a negative identity.
Erikson believed that adolescents need to establish a secured personal identity to be able to strive and be able to handle more difficult situations throughout adulthood. However, this theory was based on western cultures and many other cultures might behave and take adolescence differently instead of it being a stage of ‘Personality Crisis’.
Adolescence is a crucial part because we need to develop a positive identity to adulthood.
Erikson also believed that after adolescents have been able to create their personality, the next aspect of life adults look for is establishing intimacy and forming close relationship with others ‘without losing oneself in the process’. [5]
Erikson stated that intimacy is impossible if one person have not established identity, and that it is impossible to love someone if an individual does not even know it’s own identity and that if adults fail to form intimacy with other individuals, intimacy will turn into isolation. Failure to establish intimacy is also failing to establish generativity that can cause people to be occupied by their needs and treat themselves as their own child. Erikson called this stagnation.
Erikson therefore concluded that in order to be successful and happy in adulthood, one must be able to establish a strong and solid identity in adolescence.
Psychologists have evaluated Erikson’s theory as inaccurate because a lot has changed since it has been created; Individuals tend to engage in co-habiting relationships now unlike before. Gilligan also pointed out that psychological changes for women are different but Erikson’s theory was meant to be universal.
Contrary to Erikson’s Life stages, Levinson believed that adulthood go through its individual stages and called it ‘Seasons of a man’s life’. Levinson collected data shortly after the great depression ended from men who are at the adulthood phase.
Levinson stated that adulthood is divided into two concepts: The stable and the transitional period. Levinson then said that adolescents leave adolescence to make preliminary choices for adulthood and then establish relationships, lifestyle and occupation choices. Levinson believes that there is a transition at age 30 and it can be moderate or severe. Levinson then stated that settling down happens when adults reach their mid 30’s and after establishing a family, adults then goes into midlife transition that eventually prepares adult for entering middle adulthood.
Levinson outlined that changes happen at certain age in adults particularly men go through this changes. Critics find that there is irregularity in Levinson’s theory. Men who were interviewed and used to collect data haven’t reached 45 yet. Also, the data were collected after great depression and critics have found that these men came from stable families, had realistic goals and grew in an expanding economy. Also, this theory is ‘old-fashioned’ because nowadays, individuals don’t follow this kind of transition.
Hopson and Adams (1978) then created a model to elaborate personal responses to huge transitions in adulthood. Hopson Identified 7 major transitions: Immobilization, minimization, depression, acceptance, testing, seeking meaning and internalization.
The identification of this transitions help professionals come up to a better understanding of people but these transitions may not happen all the time. Individuals go through this transition to be able to understand why these things happen. It is more of a discovery and analysis rather than a transition.
Although a lot of people go through this transitions, some people might differ in handling crises, and individuals’ circumstances, characteristics and experiences may vary that in return can affect on how they handle crisis.
Middle Adulthood is also seen as a preparation for Late Adulthood. Kastenbaum believes that age differ in chronological, biological, subjective and functional age. According to Kastenbaum, chronological age is your age when you were born, while biological focuses on physical appearance as to how old do people think a person is and how the individual sees their age. Subjective on the other hand focuses on how an individual feels its age is, which might also relate to the maturity of the person while functionality age refers to the capacity of an individual and what the individual can do.
Kastenbaum’s theory is proven to be realistic and true as a lot of people feels younger than their age and some people are still immature despite what people expect in their actions when considering their age. Elderly people are often seen as incapable because of their age but other people do not see their capabilities underneath their age. They are often only seen as their chronological and not seen beyond functional and subjective age.
On the other hand, Cummings and Henry believed that when an individual reaches its late adulthood, they start to disengage with people around them. Disengagement is when an individual separates or disconnects itself from society.
Social Disengagement starts to occur when an individual goes through retirement. That means individuals get less interaction from society. Elderly people also get a lot of discrimination and stereotyping that makes them separate themselves from the community.
However, Havighurst and Maddox believed that it is re-engagement (activity) rather than disengagement. Contrary to the social disengagement theory, Havighurst and Maddox believed that withdrawal from society is not mutual and is in fact against elderly people’s wishes.
Havighurst and Maddox said that if activities in middle adulthood were continued through late adulthood then it would prevent disengagement and the ‘shrinkage’ of their social world. This also maintains the elderly people’s role active not only to their social society but also to the community. The withdrawal is avoidable as long as society continues to interact with its elderly community.
This essay evaluated the different theories of lifespan development. No theories have evaluated the exact development of life and the evaluation needed to pick up pieces from different theories.
In conclusion, life starts during infancy when infants form their attachment to their primary carer and this attachment is necessary and valuable in order to succeed through the whole lifespan development. It is proven that if individuals fail to establish an attachment that it might cause negative impact on adolescence building relationship with others. It is also proven that failing to establish an attachment might affect an individual’s personality and might develop delinquent behavior during Adolescence.
Attachment also continues to develop during adolescence when adolescents start building relationships with friends, other family members and other people in an individual’s life. It is also the time when an individual builds its identity, personality and characteristic to be able to success in adulthood. Failing to develop a strong and solid identity can cause chaos and problems later in adulthood. It is also believed that adolescents should only deal with one issue at a time so it would not cause chaos in developing. It is proven to be a difficult time for children because not only do they go through physical changes, but also emotional, psychological and mental changes. Maturity often develops in this stage.
Adulthood on the other hand is about becoming more stable and building a lifestyle, passing the generation and learning how to cope with issues and finding meaning. This is also the phase where people go through the most difficult transition and challenges in life. Individuals go through different changes in adulthood and it might differ from person to person. It is unpredictable as to when an individual settles down, have children or go through a middle life crisis. It all depends on an individual’s choices. Generations differ from each other and so they deal with issues differently with the earlier or later generation. Adulthood is also the time that individuals prepare for their late adulthood life.
Late adulthood has far more negative impression than any other stage in the lifespan development. The community focuses on their incapability and their deterioration more than their contribution and capability as an individual. In order to avoid withdrawal, elderly people must be more involved in society and in the community. They should also be recognized far more often to prevent withdrawal and the community should interact with elderly people more and make them feel that they are part of the community.
References:
[1] Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 32: Developmental Psychology Pg. 495
[2] Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 32: Developmental Psychology Pg. 498
[3] Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 37: Developmental Psychology Pg. 588
[4] Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 37: Developmental Psychology Pg. 582
[5] Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 38: Developmental Psychology Pg. 592
Harry Harlow’s Theory – Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 32: Developmental Psychology Pg. 495
Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Theory – Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 32: Developmental Psychology Pgs. 501-502
Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation - Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 32: Developmental Psychology Pg. 498
Coleman’s Focal Theory - Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 37: Developmental Psychology Pgs. 588-589
G Stanley Hall’s Storm and Stress Theory - Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 37: Developmental Psychology Pg. 582
Erikson’s theory: Identity Crisis: Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 37: Developmental Psychology Pgs. 583-584
Erikson’s theory: Intimacy or Isolation, Generativity or Stagnation - Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 38: Developmental Psychology Pgs. 592-594
Levinson’s ‘Season’s of a man’s life’ - Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 38: Developmental Psychology Pgs. 594-596
Hopson and Adam’s model - http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=398080§ion=1
Kastenbaum’s ‘The age of me’ - Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 39: Developmental Psychology Pgs. 610-611
Cummings and Henry’s Social Disengagement Theory - Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 39: Developmental Psychology Pg. 614
Havighurst and Maddox’s Re-engagement Theory - Gross Psychology by Richard Gross 6th Edition (2010), Chapter 39: Developmental Psychology Pg. 615
Word Count: 2,740 words (including introduction, excluding references)