Stable
It is said that extroverts need increased levels of stimulation to maintain optimum levels of attention and brain functioning. Introverts are said to have naturally high levels of excitement within them, therefore tend not to need external stimulation or excitation. An example of an extroverted performer is Roy Keane, and an example of an introverted performer is Theo Walcott.
This means that introverts tend to:
- Prefer individual sports
- Prefer a low level of excitement
- Work hard in training
- Get nervous before important competitions
- Perform intricate skills well
- Enjoy sports with more restricted movements
- Perform better at low levels of arousal
And extroverts tend to:
- Prefer team sports
- Prefer a high level of excitement
- Get bored in training
- Enjoy important competitions
- Get impatient with intricate skills
- Enjoy sports with lots of action
- Perform better at high levels of arousal
- Enjoy contact sports
Also, sports psychologists believe that type A and B personalities affect the way sports persons perform.
Type A personalities are normally impatient, time-conscious, insecure, highly competitive, hostile and aggressive, and incapable of relaxation. Type B personalities are normally relaxed, patient, creative, imaginative, tolerant, and have low stress levels. An example of a Type A personality performer is Eric Cantona.
Therefore people with type A personality would usually prefer sports that are competitive and anger-releasing. Whereas people with type B personality normally prefer calm and less energetic sports. An example of a type B personality performer is Tiger Woods.
Most sports psychologists now not only know that traits exist, but recognise that their effects can be modified by a situation. This is an interactionist approach. This means that behaviour (B) is a function of both the person (P, personality) and the environment (E).
So, B=PxE
This theory is seen to be more of an individual approach because it displays that performers in similar sports do not always have the same behaviour.
I agree strongly with this theory. This is because it doesn’t stereotype certain sports players and accounts for each individual’s own personality traits. I also agree with this because it seems to be displayed in everyday life and therefore is very accurate and simple.
In addition to the Interactionist Theory, another theory in sports psychology is the Social Learning Theory. Badura claims that we learn to deal with situations by observing others and my modelling our own behaviour on what we have seen. Social approval or disapproval reinforces our responses. Therefore behaviour is determined largely by the situation and the role of the personality is played down. This means that the Social Learning Theory is more a theory of behaviour, not personality.
The implications of social learning can be see within sport in the form of role models:
For example: A netball player is in a game and accidently manages to trip up an opposing player. Instead of leaving her there to try and get the ball, she helps her up and says sorry. This would show the spectators watching that opposing teams can be nice to each other. If this behaviour is reinforced by clapping, the behaviour is more likely to be repeated.
I also agree with this theory. I believe that if someone sees their idol sports player exhibit certain behaviour, it is extremely likely for them to copy it. Although, this theory would probably be most accurate if said about children. This is because children tend to imitate people more than adults, even though adults do as well.
Motivation
Motivation is split into 2 forms, these are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation – this means doing something only for the satisfaction, pleasure and gains for yourself derived from undertaking the behaviour.
Extrinsic motivation – this means engaging in a behaviour because it is a means to an end and not because the activity is inherently pleasurable in any way. This may be to avoid consequences or to gain positive consequences.
For example: A girl wanted to join a netball team.
- Intrinsic motivation would be if she wanted to join because she enjoys playing netball or for energy release.
- Extrinsic motivation would me if she wanted to join to make new friends or to keep fit.
Another form of motivation within these is achievement motivation. This focuses on what happens when we are faced with a choice of seeking out or avoiding challenging situations. There are two personality factors that could contribute to achievement motivation: Need to achieve and need to avoid failure.
Characteristics of a performer motivated to achieve:
- Looks for challenges
- Standards are important
- Persists for longer
- Values feedback
- Enjoys evaluation situations
- Not afraid of failure
- Takes responsibility for own actions
- Attributes performance to internal factors/controllable factors, e.g. success = effort / failure = lack of concentration
- Optimistic
- Confident
- Looks to complete the task quickly and effectively
- Task goal orientated
Characteristics of a person motivated to avoid failure:
- Avoids challenging tasks (seeks easy option or extremely hard task)
- Dislikes 50:50 situations
- Gives up easily
- Does not like feedback
- Dislikes evaluation situations
- Performs worse in evaluation situations
- Avoids personal responsibility
- Attributes failure to external factors e.g. luck, factors out of their control
- Pessimistic
- Low in confidence
- Takes a long time over task
- Outcome goal orientated
We all have both characteristics, but in different amounts. Intrinsically motivated people will most likely have a nigh need to achieve and a high motivation. Extrinsically motivated people are likely to have a high need to avoid failure and have low levels of motivation.
A theory towards motivation is the Attribution Theory. The attribution theory developed as a way of explaining how individuals and teams evaluate their levels of success and failure in performance situations. An example of a reason provided for success is that there were good decisions made by the referee. An example of a reason provided for failure is that the players were tired/injured.
The attributions are important because they can affect:
- Immediate emotional reactions
- Actual behaviour
- Aspirations
- Expectations
- Achievement
- Motivation
- Future Participation
Weiner’s Attribution Model
This theory suggests that all reasons we give for what has caused success or failure can be grouped into several categories:
- Ability
- Effort
- Task difficulty
- Luck
Weiner then organised these categories into two dimensions: locus of casualty and stability. He then put these into an ‘attribution model’:
Attribution Errors:
Attribution is closely linked to self-esteem and self confidence. Performers can use attributions to protect their self-esteem when it is threatened. This is known as self-serving bias.
Success is often attributed to internal reasons (e.g. “I was just faster and fitter than the others in my race”).
Failure is often attributed to external reasons (e.g. My new trainers gave me a blister within the first mile and the pain was just agony”).
Attributing correctly/incorrectly can easily affect motivation. If an athlete can attribute failure to their own poor performance, they are more likely to make changes in a positive manner.
