Kant argues that there is an objective moral law and he explains we know this law thought reason. He explains that moral laws exist and that they are binding for us. Kant explains that we know this law without any reference to consequences. Kant expresses the following comment:
‘Two things fill the mind with every new and increasing admiration and awe….the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me.’
Moral statements are ‘a priori synthetic’. As we cannot prove what people should do by looking, a moral statement must be a priori and as moral knowledge is gained by pure reason, not by experience they are also synthetic.
In Kant’s book Groundwork for Metaphysics of Morals he argues that the highest form of good is good will. Kant says:
‘It is impossible to conceive anything at all in the world, or even out of it, which can be taken as good without qualification, except good will.’
To have good will is to do ones duty and this is where we perform actions which are morally required and to avoid actions which are morally forbidden. Doing ones duty is doing the right thing not the wrong thing. It is not our duty to perform actions out of desire for good consequences as this is to act in self interest and so is not a morally good action ‘it is having the right intention that makes the good will good.’ Duty is good in itself although Kant does accepts that happiness is good but he explains that this comes from acting through good will. He hold the view that duty is the highest good.
The categorical imperative is an essential aspect of Kant’s theory with categorical imperative meaning something that ought to be obeyed and always applies. Kant explains the categorical imperative to be the rule or law that the man of good will consciously or unconsciously recognizes when he obeys his duty. Kant says:
‘All imperatives command either hypothetically or categorically…… If the action would be simply as a means to something else, then the imperative is hypothetical; but if the action is represented as good in itself….then the imperative it categorical.’
Kant gives three principles of the categorical imperative; The Universal Law, Treat humans as ends themselves and Act as if you live in a kingdom of ends. Kant explains the universal law as:
‘There is….only one categorical imperative. It is: Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’
In other words moral law must be applied in all situations an all rational beings universally, without exception. This is commonly referred to as universalizability.
Treat humans as ends in themselves is Kant’s way of expressing the view that you cannot use humans as a means to an end or use human being for another purpose. Kant says:
‘So act that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in the person of every other human being, never merely as a means, but always as the same time as an end.’
Kant puts a very high moral worth on human life and would never allow the death of one, or a number of humans, to save many more lives in the future.
Act as if you live in a kingdom of ends is the third and final principle of Kant’s categorical imperative. Kant says:
‘So act as if you were through your maxim a law-making member of a kingdom of ends.’
Here Kant is explaining that he requires moral statements to be such that you act as if you and everyone else, were treating each other as ends.
Assess critically the value of this approach to ethics. (12)
Many find fault with Kant’s theory mainly due to his claim that moral people are those who must conduct their lives solely in obedience to the rules generated by the categorical imperative. People have problems with this because this means that people have to follow moral laws which include ones which they have no moral obligation to. Not only this but it also means there are rules which allow for such exceptions which Kant sought to eliminate in his distinction between duty and inclination. The problem lies when you have rules which are neither morally good or morally bad, we call these morally neutral. This is where few would hold to be obligatory . The other problem is that a rule can be so precisely defined that it only benefits one individual. These points show us that the ability of the rule to be universalised does not itself guarantee that the rule will be morally good or even moral at all.
The discussion of the so-called contradiction in the will (going against what you want) is a major criticism of Kant’s theory. Kant suggests that a solution to this problem is to offer a practical test. This would allow us to reject the rules which if were to be universalised, would be totally objectionable to all rational human beings. They must reject what is contrary to the objectives that all rational people must have.
Leading from this solution put forward by Kant is the problem that not all people want the same thing and ‘we do not all find the same solutions intolerable.’ Kant uses the example of ‘Never help the helpless.’ He explains how rational beings will dislike this rule applying to themselves, but they will not say that they consider the universalization of the rule morally unjustified, they will think this rule immoral when it applies to everyone, including themselves.
Another very damaging criticism of Kant’s theory is the s-called contradiction in nature. The problem lies in Kant’s exclusion of exceptions. Telling the truth is said, by Kant, to always be wrong, but must telling the truth always be right? Irrespective of the circumstance and consequences? Although many people would agree that the idea of absolute rules is good, many people have problems with it and say that there are times when making exceptions is morally permissible.
The situation of our duties conflicting is again another damaging criticism to Kant’s theory. If it is always wrong to tell a lie and always wrong to break a promise what if I have to tell a lie to keep a promise? This is a major weakness of Kant’s theory and he provides no answer to this problem. Many would argue that we would introduce an exception to the rule about telling the truth if it was to save the life of a friend for example.
Although these weaknesses of Kant’s theory are very damaging there are also many strengths of his theory. The first of these strengths is that it takes into account justice. Many see this as it corrects the utilitarian presumption that the punishment of an innocent man is acceptable if the majority are gaining the most happiness. In Kant’s theory the morality of an action does not come from the benefit produced for the many, but it comes from the intrinsic rightness of the action which is performed. The categorical imperative therefore safeguards the justice towards the individual. This imposes duties on us all, equally and alike. Following from this there is the great benefit that there is no reliance on the unknown consequences of an action.
Kant has a very high worth for human beings which he holds almost above anything else. He explains how each man’s dignity as a rational creature, as the highpoint of creation should not be exploited for the happiness of others. This is shown in his death where he explains ‘The feeling for humanity.’ he explained, ‘has not left me’.
Praise is also given to Kant for his strong distinction between duty and inclination as it prevents individuals from assuming that what is good for them is morally right and good for everyone. People of good will obey a law which is the same for all, and only thus do they subordinate their own natural inclinations, however generous they may be. This is seen as the great strength of universalizability. Kant’s theory leads back strongly to Christianity following the golden rule of ‘Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.’ Although saying this one of the strengths of Kant’s theory is that it can also be taken as a secular approach to ethics.
Although Kant’s theory does have many weakness the strengths of it are more overwhelming and stronger. Kant’s approach is adopted by many, some from a religious nature but also many take it as a secular approach. The way it works for both is what is appealing to many people.
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