Islamic Sects.

AS and A Level Religious Studies & Philosophy

Islamic Sects

Until the advent of the Prophet Muhammad, founder of Islam during the years between 622-632, tribal jealousies and divisions between clan and clan had prevented the growth of the Arabs into a nation. (1). Through Islam and its intentions of being a religion of humanity, universal brotherhood, and a faith that was shaped by the belief in the oneness of God which would therefore bring about the oneness of its people these were changed. Arabs finally attained a type of uniformity. Their beliefs took on a more cohesive shape, and through these they gained more power than they had ever had. (2). Following the death of the Prophet in 632, these were however lost and torn to pieces by angry passions and the lust for power. (3). Internecine, strife and discord, again came to dominate and served to generate divisions and frustration which later became causal factors generating in schisms and even beliefs which contradict the soul foundations of Islam. The results of these saw the division of the great Islamic Umma, (community) into two major branches, the Sunnites and the Shiites, and numerous offshoots, some of which are today seen to be more similar to Christianity or Judaism than to Islam.

The Prophet Muhammad who later was to change the face of the Arab world was born at around the year 570, in Mecca. (4). At about the year 610, he received the first of a series of revelations that convinced him that he had been chosen as God´s messenger and thus, began to preach the message entrusted to him, that there is but one God, to whom all humankind must commit themselves. (5) At Medina Muhammad won acceptance as religious and military leader, (6) and within a few years he had established control of the surrounding region. (7) In 630, Muhammad finally conquered Mecca, and thus led his community into the rapid establishment of one of the most powerful empires. (8) Further, Muhammad was also the last of a line of God´s Messengers, he was the seal of the Prophets. (9) In his life he had laid the foundations for a community ruled by the laws of God. (10) "The formation of an umma on a definitely religious basis". (11) By the time of his death in 632, Muhammad had won the allegiance of most of the Arab tribespeople to Islam. (12) For the future guidance of the community he left the words of God revealed to him and recorded in the Koran, and the Sunna, the collective name for his opinions and decisions as recorded in the tradition literature, (Hadith). (13)

It is therefore without question that Muhammad had extraordinarily filled a great place in the hearts and lives of his community. He was much more than just their leader and judge, he was their guide to Eden, their guide to the true belief. He provided to them the answers and was the link whereby God´s direct words were communicated. His death could have therefore generated in nothing less than great feelings of loss and despair which would leave his people in a state of absolute confusion and want. "The wild confusion which party passions let loose in Madina when his death became known had the remarkable result that his corpse remained neglected for a whole day until it was finally buried". (14) The Prophet´s absence thus, left an emptiness which was felt a deep and painful wound by the Islamic community. These generated in their intense feelings of the need for someone to fill the gap the Prophet´s absence left behind. The need for someone to Govern them, for someone to somewhat fill the emptiness which left them orphaned from guide and religious guardian. No future legal successor was however left by the Prophet. (15) Yet as a result of the need felt by the people, speculations and disagreements arose as to who would have been the choice of the Prophet, or who had he somewhat indicated would have been chosen, and as to the necessary qualifications and exact function of his successors as leaders (imams) of the Muslim community.

Differences of opinions on abstract subjects about which there could not be any certitude in a finite existence gave rise to great bitterness and fierce hostility and from that moment on the church of Muhammad was rent by intestine divisions and strife which in some cases crumbled the very foundations of the Islamic Umma and Muslim belief. The Sunnites for instance affirmed that when stricken by his last illness the Prophet from his death bed deputed Abu Bakr, father of Muhammad´s favourite wife and one of his closest companions to act as the leader in prayers in his place, and following his death the nomination of the greater majority was therefore accepted by the 'congregation´, and Abu Bakr was installed as his successor by the unanimous suffrage of the Moslems. (16) Not all were however agreed on this decision. Many favoured Ali, the Prophet´s cousin and husband of his most favourite daughter Fatima, and from this point onwards divisions came to take an almost absolute form. (17) Supporters of Ali came to be known as Shiites, (a name derived from the Arabic Shiat Ali, 'the party of Ali´) which today constitute one of the two major branches of Islam, the other larger branch being the Sunnites. (18)

In this respect it thus is clear, that it is according to ones pledge of support as to the rightful leaders post the death of the Prophet which gave birth to the creation of the divide and distinctions between the two major denominations of Islam. To Sunnites the Imamate belongs to the Kuraish, (Meccan families), known as the Caliphate. (19) However, to them the title Imam or Caliph only implied the assumption of his functions as Judge and temporal leader of the community. It was believed that the spiritual guidance of the community had been inherited by the community as a whole. (20) "That the Muslim people shall rule itself and can attain truth and certainty by it´s own exertions". (21) To Sunnites the Caliph thus had no authority to give new interpretations in religious matters. (22) His office was simply a delegation of authority for the purpose of applying and defending religious law. (23) The Koran is therefore their complete and fundamental guide to belief about God, nature and history, through which God´s revelation is taught and the basic beliefs of Islam and its five pillars, or primary rules are prescribed. (24) These are first and foremost, the profession of faith, ('Shahada´, the testimonial of an eye witness, 'there is no God but God, Mohammad is the Prophet of God´), (25) prayer, which is prescribed five times during five distinct periods within each day, fasting in the month of Ramadan, giving alms to the poor, and pilgrimage to the Hajj, (Kaaba at Mecca). (26)

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Also of prime religious importance for Sunnites are everything that Muhammad said and did: for to them his deeds and actions are primary examples of how an accurate Muslim life is supposed to be led. (27) In other words to lead a life that can in a way mean, 'imitatio Muhammadis´. (28) These concepts were further elaborated through the development of Sunni schools of Law, which were the associations of scholars, teachers and students, whereby through discussions among legal scholars, codes of law were developed and routine ways of collaborating with established estates also gained the acceptance of Sunnites. (29) It is perhaps for these reasons, that rather than being concerned with politics, Sunnites were led to be more concerned with community affairs, with upholding public morality and applying the Shari´a to family and commercial affairs. (30) Such policies and behaviour by Sunnites has in general formed the mainstream of the Islamic tradition and is perhaps one of the greater characteristics that distinguishes the Sunnites from the Shiites.

As previously mentioned, the Shiites are those who pledged their allegiance for Ali as the most rightful heir to the imamate. In fact the Shiites were so convinced that no one but Ali should have been appointed as successor to the Prophet that they perhaps were horrified with disappointment and frustration to the absolute extreme when Abu Bakr was rather elected. Even Ali himself felt this disappointment and frustration and for six months withheld support from the newly chosen Calipha. (31) In this respect, it is perhaps fair to say that following the death of the Prophet the Shiites, wether deliberately or entirely undeliberately came to take the shape of a distinct group with Ali as their chosen leader. Therefore, his being overlooked despite their certainty not only meant loss or failure, it meant disgrace which also gave way to their feelings of being deliberately persecuted, that not only extended the divide between them and the Sunnites but also paved the way for hatred to come into the existence.

These could not be helped especially as the Shiites believed that there existed abundant evidence which proved that Ali was the only Muslim worthy to succeed the Prophet as ruler of the Islamic community, and nothing could therefore convince, or allow them to accept otherwise. The Shiites for instance, professed that Ali was the first male to believe the Prophet´s message. (32) That the Prophet was raised by Ali´s father in the same home and that they therefore shared in knowledge. (33) They also declared that the Prophet had appointed Ali as his successor in his lifetime, (34) That on the occasion where the Prophet had returned from the farewell pilgrimage at Mecca he took Ali´s hand in his right hand and declared, "Whomsoever I protect, Ali is likewise his protector, o God be a friend to, (or close to, 'vali´) whoever is his friend and an enemy to whoever is his enemy!". (35) Sunnites however, rejected this claim. According to them the Prophet had no intention of giving Ali precedence over companions from his party, and that on the stated occasion the Prophet merely attempted to support Ali in some 'internal conflict´. (36)

Both sects, the Sunnites and the Shiites were thus, certain as to their claims, and while the appointment of Abu Bakr as leader gave the Sunnites satisfaction, it only gave grief and caused frustration among the Shiites. One could therefore only imagine the extent of grief, disappointment, and frustration felt by the Shiite creed when despite their sureness Ali was bypassed and rejected twice more as successor. (37) In order to compensate for their failure to rise to power these therefore led Shiites to weave legends about Ali, and (38) very soon the twofold character of warrior and of saint thus came to be attributed to Ali. (39) For instance, as warrior Ali was claimed to be of superior nature. (40) It was said that during the battle at Siffin Ali single handedly killed five hundred and twenty three men in one day. (41) "He is represented as waiting unmoved for the attack of the enemy and knocking down thirty three assailants by simply extending his arm". (42) As saint Ali was also said to possess the ability to perform miracles that could only compare to the works of the Prophets. (43) "The Persians of the present day speak of more than a thousand of Ali´s miracles, but sixty only have been placed on record. (44) In fact Ali became so mythologised that separating the real Ali from the mythical one through the anecdotes about him or attributed to him would have proven to be an almost impossible task. (45)

By the time Ali finally came into power in the year 656, (46) the honours attributed to him became so swollen that there almost existed no more place for God beside him. (47) Such claims are perhaps what then contributed to paving the way for extremist beliefs to eventuate in bringing forth a number of sects that show numerous departures from Muslim, and thus, Sunnite norms. For instance, one extremist Shiite sect, the Ghulat, came to also attribute deity to Ali. Amongst these, the most fundamental of beliefs is that Ali is God. (48) "They believe in a trinity consisting of God, Mohammad and Ali as composite, which they claim to be the one person". (49) The Ghulat sect also ascribe to Ali divine attributes such as the creation of the world and miracles such as that of speaking in the cradle like Jesus. (50) "Mohammad who had not yet received God´s revelation went to see the new born child, (Ali), ...... Ali spoke reciting from the Koran 23: 1-10, where God says, 'Successful are those believers who humble themselves in their prayers ..... Muhammad responded by saying, 'Surely the believers have become successful through you´. (51)

Similar beliefs are held by a number of other extremist Shiite sects. The Alyaiyya amongst others for example, not only believe that Ali is God, but also maintain that he sent Muhammad to proclaim his divine message to mankind but that Muhammad instead claimed the prophethood for himself. (52) The Shabak, another such group, place the blame on the Angel Gabriel whom they claim to be the 'betrayer of the faithful one´ because they believe that rather than delivering God´s message to Ali as commanded, he delivered it to Muhammad instead. (53) Not entirely dissimilar are the Shiites of Iran who also came to the belief of that although Ali is not God, he is not far from being one. (54) According to Sunnites and even some Shiites such groups are nothing less that heretics especially as the beliefs adopted by them violate the essential essence of Islamic Scripture that is ascribed within the very first of the five pillars of Islam, the profession of faith, which is considered to be what distinguishes a Muslim from a non Muslim. (55)

Furthermore, following the violent death of Ali in the year 661, (56) which was also followed by the mysterious death of his son Hasan and the Horrific death of his son Husain extremist Shiite beliefs were further exalted and the divisions and differences between the whole of the Shiite creed and the Sunnites grew, especially as the Shiites lay the blame for the deaths of their imams on the Sunnites. "The social mythos of Shi´ism suggests that the blame for the deaths of their imams must be placed at the door of the (Sunni) majority caliphs", (57) who are alleged to have deliberately set out to systematically eradicate Ali and his descendants. (58) The results of these led to the previous feeling of frustration, grief, and disappointment by Shiites to elevate into unrestrained violent passion and raging furiousness, and from that point on, Shiites perhaps felt an impeding desire to deliberately distinguish themselves from the Sunnites, and the differences between them thus became further exacerbated. Concepts, beliefs, practices and Scriptures totally alien to the Koran, the Hadiths attributed to Mohammad and therefore to Sunnites were then developed by the Shiites. "Shiites incorporated many beliefs other than from Islam and thus assimilated it´s borrowing´s into a new synthesis, in which the central figures were Ali, Hasan, Hussein and their descendants". (59) Independent Scriptures such as that contained in the (book) 'Nahj al Baghda´ (Path of eloquence) whereby the Hadiths attributed especially to Ali were collected and emphasised as central teachings of Shiism. (60)

Furthermore, through minor details the Shiite Mosque was developed to become somewhat distinct to that of the Sunnites. (61) The phrase, 'I attest that Ali is close 'Wali´, (friend) and processor of the power to God´, was added and repeated twice in the call for prayer. (62) The obligatory prayers that are by the Koran and by the five pillars, or rules of Islam ascribed to be fulfilled five times during five distinct periods within the day were by Shiites regrouped into three points during each day. (63) Amongst these another point of difference between Sunnite and Shiite prayer was also developed. It became customary to place a small tablet of clay brought from a holy place on the spot where their foreheads will touch whilst praying. (64)

Soon also, the Shiites came to the belief of that the deaths of , or the blood of Hasan and Husain paved their way to Paradise, (65) and by the late decades of the tenth century a public holiday (Ashura) devoted to the mourning for their deaths came to occupy important Shiite ritual practice. (66) Upon this day, "the faithful repeat the lament 'Ya Hasan, Ya Hussein´, groaning and weeping and sometimes beating themselves with chains". (67) There may also be a passion play re-enacting with great realism the suffering inflicted on to Hussein by the believed to be Sunnite persecutors and audiences in some cases have on this occasion become so overwrought that the actors playing the role of the Sunnites have been assaulted. (68) This occasion also soon came to be observed with more intensity than the feast commemorating the sacrifice or the little feast terminating Ramadan that is of greatest importance to Sunnites. (69) Shiites in addition became less concerned with the Pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, as opposed to Sunnites, as they rather came to emphasise greater concern with the Pilgrimages to their own holy places, notably the tombs of the Imams and their relations. (70)

By the ninth century another point of difference which further distinguished the Shiites from the Sunnites had already emerged out of the newly established doctrines the Shiites had conceded in regards to the qualities required for the imamate. (71) Shiite concepts of the imam came to include notions entirely alien to that of Sunnites and which greatly exceeded any powers claimed by Sunnites for their caliphs. (72) Shiism emphasised the spiritual function of the Prophet´s successor, the imam, whose position came to be regarded as one which can only be received through hereditary authority in whom the Prophetic light is ever present in this word. He came to be believed to be divinely protected against sin and error and to have an infallible understanding of the Koran, a supernatural knowledge of future events, and intercessory powers. (73) "The imam came to be understood as an emanation of the divine being, the universal intelligence, and thus the bearer of direct knowledge of the secret truths and states of spirituality". (74)

The notion of that the role of the imam was relied on miraculous guidance by God thus, also meant that the concept of a mediator or intercessor between man and God which was somewhat more compatible to Christianity rather that to Islam was therefore also introduced by the Shiites. (75) Later, the imam by Shiites not only came to be regarded as infallible and sinless, but also as the patron and syndic of all Muslims and the guardian of their interests during their lives as well as after their death. (76) The presence of an imam in every generation became also an issue of absolute importance within the Shiite religious system as it was also affirmed that any one who dies without acknowledging the imam within his or her generation dies an infidel. (77)

Such beliefs in the imams and the imamate which came to occupy the center of the Shiite religious system became the Islamic concept which more than anything separated them from the Sunnites. (78) The Sunnites for instance, stood in absolute opposition to the miraculous attributes ascribed to the imams which they believed led to the near worship of them. As opposed to that of Shiites, Sunni tendencies insist only on the arbitrary will of God. (79). Richard). Their Scriptures are also based on the teaching of that recoiling the idea of blind submission to any human teacher is 'shirk´, (80) (polytheism), that is associating a companion with God which is also stressed against within the later parts of the Koran whereby those who carry such beliefs (mushrikun) are threatened with the last Judgement. (81) "The mushrikun, (polytheists), will then receive their punishment". (verse xxviii/ 62 sqq. of the Koran). (82)

Furthermore, the blind submission and unrestrained faith of Shiites towards their imams especially following some of either their deaths or disappearance, for instance, led differences and therefore schisms to arise amongst them in accordance to differing theories of the true succession of imams, (83) which therefore prevented their attainment of any far reaching uniformity as the Sunnites. (84) For this reason the number of the Shia subdivisions today far exceeds the well known number seventy two, (85) amongst which numerous beliefs quite at variance with those of Sunnites and even of some Shiites themselves are held. (86) The Zaidis for instance, recognise only the first four of the usual imams, ending with the son of Husain. (87) These affirm that the imamate descended from Ali to Hasan, then to Husain and then from Husain it developed upon Ali and from him it passed to Zaid. (88) Further, although the Zaidis insist that their imam should be a descendent of Hasan or Husain, they do not make any extraordinary claims for his infallibility or his mediation between man and God, which thus makes them most similar to the Sunnites. (89)

Another such sect, the Twelver Shiites are those who recognise the existence of twelve imams and are by far the largest majority of the Shiite creed. (90) The name of this particular sect originated following the mysterious disappearance of the twelfth imam who was succeeded to the imamate following the death of his father at about the year 878. (91) For instance, following the disappearance of the twelfth imam Twelver Shiites were forced to accept the fact of his absence for an indefinite period of history, and as their Scripture specifies that every historical age must feature a proof of God manifested in the imam it came to be believed that the twelfth imam was not subject to mortality and part of their doctrine therefore concluded in ascribing that the twelfth imam manifested a contact with his followers despite his phenomenal disappearance. (92) Sunnis are opposed to these Shiite conceptions, especially as their religious law insists that the imam must be actually present in person in order to maintain this role and that where it is not possible for him to lead the prayers, he should be represented by persons possessing the necessary qualifications. (93)

To add, the demand by Shiites for an absolute restorer led also to the belief of Mahdi to arise. (94) As a result the twelfth imam came also to bear among the Twelver Shiites the titles, the muntazar, (the expected), the Hujja, or the proof (of the truth), and the Kaim, the 'living´, (95) who by them is believed will return before the end of the world to relieve a sorrowing and sinful world of it´s burden of sin and oppression as the Mahdi. (96) Furthermore, although this concept of Mahdi exists among the Sunnites it differs considerably. Most of the Sunnites do not claim that they know the identity of the Messiah or Mahdi until he actually makes the claim. (97) They believe that the saviour of Islam is still unborn, (98) while by some however, it is believed that it is Isa (Jesus) that towards the end of the world will return as Mahdi. (99)

Ismailis or Seveners (followers of the seventh imam Ismail) another Shiite sect, applied this belief of the concealment of the imam to the seventh imam, Musa al Kazim who died in the year 799. (100) This particular group evolved out of a frustration which was due to what they believed was an unjust claim by Twelver Shiites who accused the seventh imam (Ismail) of drunkenness and thus recognised his younger brother instead. (101) Differing numerous activities, and varying beliefs and attitudes amongst this group have also been noted to be the causes behind the creation of some sects who incorporated many non Islamic elements and thus have often been classified as separate faiths. (102) One such example are the Druzes.

The Druzes trace their origins and their name to an eleventh century Ismaili missionary, Darazi, whose followers proclaimed the Fatimid caliph Hakim who vanished near Cairo in the year 1021 to be the hidden imam. (103) The beliefs held by Druzes also show many departures from Islamic doctrines. (104) They for instance believe in the transmigration of souls, do not observe fasting within the holy month of Ramadan, (The third of the Islamic pillars), (105) and although they celebrate the feast of the Pilgrimage season, they have expelled the practice of Pilgrimage from their religious doctrine. (106) One other religious function by the Druzes which is peculiar to Islam as a whole is to practice their beliefs in secrecy, concealing their sacred books even from most members of the sects and refuse to accept any new converts. (107)

It thus is clear that although the Sunnite and Shiite Muslims with exception to the extremist Shiites, did not differ much in their orientation to daily life they differed profoundly in the emotional mood through which they saw worldly reality. (108) However, although this resulted in the emergence of many differences between the two sects the distinctions in most cases are only of significance to perhaps Western scholars. For instance, most Westerners are little aware of the divisions of the Islamic world into Sunnites and Shiites and much less is known about the stratification of these two groups. (109) Furthermore, Muslims themselves also do not give these aspects too much thought. It is for instance often asserted by observers that Muslim workers and peasants place no great importance on religion and feel that class is more significant as an analytical idea. (110) Also, throughout the Islamic world tolerance of other´s differences seems to be widely practiced, and the fact that each of these groups are somewhat situated within separate regions of each of the countries they occupy gives little reason for close contact to occur between the each of them. In order to realise the differences between themselves Sunnites and Shiites have only physical appearance to look to. Yet through these no indication of difference may be given.

In Summary, through the evidence compiled it is clear that while the Sunni communities elaborated their several beliefs, Shiites developed their own. Nevertheless most Shiite sects like the Sunnites first and foremost share the same respect for the central dogma of the oneness of "God. 'There is but one God´. The same sacred writing, the Koran, the same Prophet Muhammad, the same belief in the resurrection followed by the last judgement and the same fundamental obligations, prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, and almsgiving, with exception to the addition regarding that of the imamate. This addition which is what constitutes and what also led to the greatest distinctions between the Sunnites and the Shiites owes it´s origin to disagreements which occurred in regards to the imamate following the death of the Prophet. Coupled with the feelings of frustration following their repeated rejection, the Shiites were led to also develop differing practices and differing beliefs especially in regards to Ali and as to the function and role of their imams. These also paved the way for extremist beliefs and therefore schisms amongst their creed which concluded in the development of differing Shiite sects whose beliefs not only eventuated in differing to that of Sunnites but also to that of Shiites themselves.