animal experimentation
Examine and consider religious and ethical responses to animal experimentation One philosopher that strongly is against animal testing is Peter Singer; he became involved after studying the work of Jeremy Bentham. He is most famously known for his book named animal liberation which states that The Institute of national health spent over $11 million on experiments that involved direct manipulation of the brain, over $5 million on experiments that studied the effects drugs have on behaviour, almost $3 million on learning and memory experiments, and over $2 million on experiments involving sleep deprivation, stress, fear, and anxiety. This government agency spent more than $30 million dollars on animal experiments in one year. This surely arises the question of how can these things happen? How can people who are not sadists spend their working days driving monkeys into lifelong depression, heating dogs to death, or turning cats into drug addicts? How can they then remove their white coats, wash their hands, and go home to dinner with their families? How can taxpayers allow their money to be used to support these experiments? (Singer, 1975). The simple answer to this question is we tolerate cruelties inflicted on members of other species that would outrage us if performed on members of our own species Jeremy Bentham also shares similar view on animal testing as Singer, Bentham
Explain the importance of good will in Kant's ethical theory.
Explain the importance of good will in Kant's ethical theory. Kant places good will at the centre of ethics, and in doing so; went beyond anything ever written before. For Kant, the supreme thing on earth is the development of a good will, and to act from a sense of duty. Kant believed that good will is the only thing that is good in all circumstances. 'It is impossible to conceive anything at all in the world, or even out of it, which can be taken as good without qualification, except a good will.' To develop a good will, we must act rationally, and we must be ruled by reason. Kant believed that if we did this, we would be acting according to God's wishes. Kant's theory directly opposes utilitarian ethics. Kant would insist we were honest (even when faced with death) Kant does not consider the end results, for example happiness for the greatest number, only the action. Before Kant, the most important moral theories were based upon Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, which asserts that whatever leads to the greatest happiness (eudaimonia) is what is moral. For Kant, 'ought' implies 'can' and therefore what we ought to do must be under our control. Kant believed that everyone possesses a conscience, a sense of right and wrong, a sense of duty. Kant placed a high emphasis on reason- he believed if it were applied correctly, it would lead to identical results, in the same
Is there any ethical/framework/research that can play any part in analysing the real world ethical problem today?
Is there any ethical/framework/research that can play any part in analysing the real world ethical problem today? To be able to answer this question and for people reading this essay to understand, it is important to clarify what ethics is. Ethics is not about following a persons feeling, it is not about religion, nor is it about law and what the society expect, but it refers to well based standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues and ethics refers to the study and development of one's ethical standards. (Raymond Baumhart). During this essay, Wal-Mart, which are the US leading retailer, employing 1,4 million people world wide with a annual sale on $220 billion a year, which makes them the most profitable company in the world, will be analysed to see if there are some useful ethical theories, framework and research in explaining if the sweatshops allegations in Bangladesh are unethically. There are little doubt that many MNE's(multinational enterprises) engaged in regime shopping, locating contentious activities in countries where there are fewer legal restriction (Mellahi and Wood, 2003. Lecture notes 6). This is what Wal-Mart did in the beginning of the 90's when they saw a big opportunity in that they could move abroad with some of the business to find a
The founder of situation ethics, Joseph Fletcher felt that the individual should be of paramount concern and that each ethical situation should be judged in its own context.Fletcher wanted to preserve the Christian principle of agape love
(A) What may be said in favour of situation ethics? [7] This essay shall discuss what may be said in favour of situation ethics. Firstly it shall discuss scholars that favour it and why. Secondly it shall discuss the features that situation ethics posses that makes it favourable to others. Finally it shall analyse the effect of situation ethics and why people favour to apply it. The founder of situation ethics, Joseph Fletcher felt that the individual should be of paramount concern and that each ethical situation should be judged in its own context. Fletcher wanted to preserve the Christian principle of agape love. Fletcher therefore proposed an anapaestic calculus and followed, "love your neighbour as yourself." Fletcher believed that only "one things is instrinclly good - love itself" Therefore a person following situation ethics would take each situation as it came and they would come to a judgment of the situation as responding by assessing the most compassionate option available. Fletcher claimed that Justice is only love in action. Agape love can also be seen to collapse into utilitarianism, "the greater good for the greater number" where "number" is replaced with "love" Paul Tillich said, "The law of love is the ultimate law because it is the negation of law, it is absolute because it concerns everything concrete. The absolutism of love is its power to go into
Examine at least two religious perspectives on sexual ethics. To what extent, if any, is it reasonable to claim that sexual ethics should be separated from religious beliefs?
Religious Studies - Ethics Sexual Ethics Examine at least two religious perspectives on sexual ethics. (14 marks) To what extent, if any, is it reasonable to claim that sexual ethics should be separated from religious beliefs? (6 marks) Sexual ethics is a topical issue of today as sexual identity and sexual activities are perhaps the most personal and basic ways that we can express ourselves. From the Christian perspective, sexuality is a matter of individuality and private morality, whilst political bodies, religious institution and social values render a variety of interpretations of gender and sexual relationships. In other words, sexual ethics is profoundly political, economic and social. For many religions, sexual ethics is expressive of a divine relationship as well as the fact that it is undertaken within a community. This tension in sexual ethics between the private and the public sphere is what makes it an interesting and important topic of academic study. Sexual ethics encompasses the issues of sex before, within and outside of marriage, sexual orientation, masturbation and contraception. The context of sexual ethics in the world today is that any form of sexual pleasure is pursued solely for the immediate physical gratification and not for the intimacies between two people that it involves. In majority, people believe that sex is morally acceptable if there
Examine different ways in which ‘good’ is used in Meta Ethics.
Examine different ways in which 'good' is used in Meta Ethics. In the modern degrading society we live in today, people are constantly questioning the highly debatable topic of morals. We would like to think that we are trying our hardest to strive to do what is right in society to make us decent people. However it is hard to do what is 'good' when there are so many different ways of defining the meaning of good itself. There are three main types of ethics, Descriptive, Prescriptive and Meta ethics. Descriptive ethics presents the facts in the way people live and how they make moral choices in life. It simply states the facts without making any moral judgement of 'good' or 'bad'. Prescriptive ethics states the norm about what is right or wrong by examining the choices and the reasons behind the issues. It says how we should live or behave setting standards for everyone to live by. This is the most widely used form of ethical language when debating morality. Meta ethics is a philosophical analysis of different words used in ethical language. It closely examines the words themselves and their exact meaning in different contexts. The subject of Meta ethics is to intimately study the moral language to be able to reach a better understanding of its meaning. Without the knowledge and intense understanding of the language we use in moral debates, we cannot argue our points
Evaluate the claim that conscience is a reliable guide to ethical decision making.
EVALUATE THE CLAIM THAT CONSCIENCE IS A RELABLE GIUDE IN ETHICAL DECISION MAKING. 45 MARKS. In order to decide whether or not our consciences can be relied upon, we must first examine what we mean by conscience. In order for conscience to be consistently and absolutely reliable, infallible, it must stem from an infallible source - God. Alternatively, conscience might have a potential of ultimate reliability, if the faculty of conscience was dynamic and capable of solving problems i.e. if it was an innate part of human nature. Conscience could even be totally fallible - an arbitrary by-product of experience and biology. This idea - propagated by such scientist-thinkers as Sigmund Freud and Piaget - does not dismiss the idea of conscience, but rather seeks to define it in psychoanalytical terms. Freud had a different word for the conscience - Super-Ego. In order to understand this concept, we must delve briefly into Freud's general psychological theories. According to Freud, every child is born with the 'Id'. The Id is that part of us which is based solely on the pleasure principle - ignoring all reality it seeks food, shelter or other physical gratification. As a child develops he or she will begin to realise that the needs of the Id cannot always be met, whether because of the restraints of physical reality or the emotional impact that the demands of the Id will have on
Humans are Eternal Beings
'We are eternal beings.' Discuss. The body and soul topic is primarily about the relationship between the body and soul, and indeed, if there is such a thing as a soul. The topic is seen as important as it centres on the age-old question of life after death. There are many views on this subject, but I shall only focus on three in this essay. Within dualism, the body and soul are two distinct entities, somehow bound together. Scholars that are associated with this theory are Rene Descartes and Plato. Secondly, I shall be studying soft materialism, where the body and soul are one, with the thinking that, if the body can be bought back after death, then so can the soul have a life after death. Those connected to this theory are John Hick and Thomas Aquinas. Lastly is hard materialism, the belief that the body and soul are purely physical, and that they are both one; the mind being just brain activity, not the soul that dualists would refer to. Hard materialists believe that, when the body dies, the mind dies too. This theory is generally associated with thinkers such as Richard Dawkins and Gilbert Ryle. One of the most important dualists was Plato. Plato's views changed over time, which is evident in his three books, 'The Timaeus', 'Phaedo' and 'The Republic'. In 'The Timaeus', Plato put forward that the soul, or psyche, gives life to the body - your body is like a machine, and
Ethical Issues Involved In The Legislation of Euthanasia?
Ethical Issues involved in Euthanasia Euthanasia is the act or practice of ending the life of an individual suffering from a terminal illness or an incurable condition, as by lethal injection or the suspension of extraordinary medical treatment. There are 2 different types of euthanasia. Passive euthanasia occurs when a patient dies because the medical professionals either don't do something necessary to keep the patient alive, or when they stop doing something that is keeping the patient alive. Examples of this might be; * Switching off life-support machines. * Disconnecting a feeding tube. * Not carrying out a life-extending operation. * Not giving life-extending drugs. Active euthanasia occurs when the medical professionals, or another person, deliberately do something that causes the patient to die. Either type requires that somebody acts. In the first case by not doing something, and in the second by an intended action. Arguably, euthanasia should not take place in the absence of the consent of the person concerned. But, passive euthanasia can more readily occur in the absence of consent. Clearly, there are issues or dilemmas' surrounding the matter as to whether or not the individual is able to give informed consent. A Deontological Ethic is that you have to regard the nature of the act itself. Deontological ethics means obligation or duty and is an
Situation Ethics
Situation Ethics Situation ethics is not dissimilar from utilitarianism, in that it is a way a deciding upon the correct action that is to be taken in a given situation. It does however take an individualistic approach, with the emphasis being upon each person, rather than looking after the majority, as is the case in utilitarianism. It is a Christian principle, and so would not apply to those outside of Christianity. It revolves around what the most loving thing to do is. Joseph Fletcher, an American professor of ethics used his beliefs and concerns to come up with what he believed was a fair way of deciding what was the right action to take in a situation. He didn't like the way in which so many ethical theories, such as utilitarianism were based upon and around a basic set of rules, a legalistic approach. He believed that it was too rigid, and did not allow for exceptions. He also firmly disapproved of any antinomian, because it "Rejects the idea that there are any authoritative laws, rules or regulations that you ought to obey in a decision-making situation."1 Instead he used love as a general rule in decision making; not "storge", to love a country or place; not "philia", to love a family member or friend; and not "eros", to make love and to lust for someone; but instead "agape", self-giving love, as is demonstrated by Jesus dying upon the cross. To Fletcher, "agape"