Examine the key features of utilitarianism and its strengths and weaknesses of utilitarianism

a) Examine the key features of utilitarianism and its strengths and weaknesses. Utilitarianism was developed by Jeremy Bentham and is a teleological theory where the moral value of an action can be judged by the likely consequences. The aforementioned Bentham lived in an era of great social and scientific change and unrest. He therefore, because of his social surroundings developed a theory that stated that right actions are those that produce the most pleasure for everyone affected and wrong actions consequently are those that do not. He coined the phrase 'the greatest good for the greatest number' - which summarises his aim which was to iron out the deep inequalities of his time. Bentham, being a Hedonist, believed that all humans naturally pursued pleasure and conversely tried to avoid pain. To measure this pain and pleasure, Bentham created the 'hedonic calculus', in which happiness was measured with seven different elements, including duration of happiness, the intensity of it and the purity of it. However if applying even one of these factors, let alone all seven, it causes a problem. For example it is impossible to know the duration of the pleasure or pain, because we would all quantify it differently, some are more susceptible to feeling pain, unlike others who are much stronger. We can never predict an accurate duration of the pleasure and a some argue that it is

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  • Level: AS and A Level
  • Subject: Religious Studies & Philosophy
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Kant's theory of Ethics

` Kant and the Deontological Argument Immanuel Kant was born in Konigsberg, East Prussia, 1724, and died in 1804 and so, was alive during much of the 18th Century. One of his most important pieces of work was the development of his own theory of ethics, which aimed to prove that ethics should be based on reason. That is why Kant's theory is considered to be of a deontological nature. The historical context of the 18th Century is important when trying to realise why Kant came up with his particular ethical theory based on reason. This period of time is named the 'Enlightenment Period' during which there was increased recognition of the need for the development of an ethical theory based on reason, and reason alone. Kant was, to a great extent, influenced by German pietism i.e. the view that religion should be based on human experience rather than study or rational proof. He stands as part of the 'European Enlightenment', the movement that aimed to go beyond authority and superstition so as to deal with morality based solely on human reason. In its basics, Kant's moral theory is deontological, meaning it rests on the concept of duty or obligation (derived from the Greek word 'ontos' meaning duty/obligation). Kant argues we should handle our affairs through duty to the moral law. Kant starts off by arguing that reason is the primary source of knowledge. Therefore, Kant

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  • Level: AS and A Level
  • Subject: Religious Studies & Philosophy
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"Humanitarian intervention, which is ruled out by realism and the morality of states, can only be justified by a cosmopolitan morality." Discuss.

Lucy White War, Peace and International Ethics Tutor: Mr. Barry Holden Spring 2001 Essay 2: "Humanitarian intervention, which is ruled out by realism and the morality of states, can only be justified by a cosmopolitan morality." Discuss. The concept of humanitarian intervention has been an issue in world politics ever since the Cold War. Since the Gulf War it has been argued1 that there is a need for increased thought about when humanitarian intervention is justifiable. One of the main arguments against the idea of humanitarian intervention is that it contradicts the concept of the sovereignty of states. The leading characteristic of the world political scene in recent centuries is the place of the sovereign state as its chief component. By definition, sovereignty denotes complete exclusion of other states from a state's domestic affairs. Intervention by other states into those affairs thus challenges the essential nature of a state and has consequently always been regarded as a hostile act. Nevertheless intervention has in practice been a common feature of international politics. This essay will discuss whether humanitarian intervention can be justified in relation to the morality of states, realism and cosmopolitan morality. It is widely accepted that there is a clear overlap between human rights and the justification of humanitarian intervention. Most say that,

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  • Level: AS and A Level
  • Subject: Religious Studies & Philosophy
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Business environment

Running Head: BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT Business Environment Antoine Bruneel Portsmouth University Business environment Business ethics is a well-institutionalized academic field, which deals with the moral dimension of business activity. In the context of international business, it means the treating of moral questions of international cultures and countries. International business should be sensitive to the environment and not just selfish for its own profits. Ethically, safety comes first and the profit comes last. The various issues that ethics target are diverse - environmental concerns, animal welfare issues, labor practices, fair trade, health concerns, genetic modification, patenting of genes, cloning etc. International business is both more exposed to a variety of ethical conditions as well as in a position to exploit business ethics due to the sheer size an international company has. The end result of an ethical judgment entails its authenticity from being morally correct. But moral correction itself is a relative concept and is based upon the cultural perceptions as well as traditions. The international market and business arena can be ethically segmented into the 'die hard', the 'don't cares', and the various groups in between. Companies all around the world are coming under scrutiny from governments, shareholders, customers, trade unions, human-rights groups, and

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  • Level: AS and A Level
  • Subject: Religious Studies & Philosophy
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Natural Moral Law - in theory and in practice.

Outline the theory of Natural Moral Law (18) Natural Moral Law is an absolutist ethical theory which means that there is a moral command that is true to everyone all of the time, so it is universal and hopes to achieve absolute morality; “As fire burns both here and in Persia” Aristotle. Cicero stated that humans have the ability to reason and follow an intended purpose so that “true law is right in accordance to nature”. It is based on deontology which originates from the Greek word ‘deon’ meaning duty. This means the motivation of an action is defined independently of its outcome and the action must be intrinsically good rather than instrumental. As it is concerned with reason Mel Thompson expressed the theory as “the rational understanding and following of God’s final purpose”. It is a deductive theory because it starts with the basic principles and from these the right course of action in a particular situation is deduced. The theory is a pre-Christian idea which was first introduced by Aristotle, a Greek philosopher. Aristotle believed that there is an efficient cause which allows us to fulfill our Final cause (telos or purpose). For example we plant seeds and water them as an efficient cause to reach the final cause of a flower blossoming. The efficient cause is a statement of fact of descriptive ethics (saying what is there) however the final cause

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  • Level: AS and A Level
  • Subject: Religious Studies & Philosophy
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What are the Main Features of Utilitarianism as an Ethical Theory?

What are the Main Features of Utilitarianism as an Ethical Theory? Utilitarianism: 'A moral theory according to which an action is right only if it conforms to the principle of utility' (www.utilitarianism.com) Utilitarianism is a moral theory of usefulness, which comes from the Latin word 'utilis' meaning useful. It is primarily concerned with the greatest good for the greatest number and because of this, reflects the wants and desires of society. It is concerned with good outcomes not good intentions, as no action is intrinsically good. Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory and in the 1960's, utilitarianism was the term commonly used for consequentialism, and that use of utilitarianism remains today, but many people now use the term utilitarianism to designate a kind of consequentialism. Because of this, the greatest good is relative to the situation in hand. To obtain the greatest good for the greatest number one has to judge each situation on its own merits. For example, if an expectant mother, her husband and her father are in a car crash then a utilitarian would try to save the expectant mother first as she is pregnant and therefore there are two lives that would be saved (this is the greatest number as far as the people in the car are concerned). The next person to save would be the husband as he is still young and has a child on the way and lastly the woman's

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  • Level: AS and A Level
  • Subject: Religious Studies & Philosophy
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Examine the key features of situation ethics, and the main criticisms of it, and how far these lead to the rejection of the theory.

Examine the key features of situation ethics. Then outline the main weaknesses of situation ethics. How far do these lead to a rejection of the theory? Despite the view of Kant, and many Christian people, that it is not ethical to only act after assessing the implications of a moral action, since the 1960's a view that situation ethics is an effective way to judge an action and its consequences has emerged in the secular community. However, it is also necessary to acknowledge the Christian ethos in order to fully make a decision on the ethical viability of something in such an ephemeral world. Situation ethics is a theory most commonly associated with the work of Joseph Fletcher, an American professor and one of the key pioneers in bioethics, and J.A.T. Robinson, a New Testament scholar, author and a former Anglican bishop of Woolwich. Fletcher wrote a book called Situation Ethics, which was published in 1966, a time when the ephemeral nature of the country was highly accentuated by political matters; Women were more commonly going to work, following the suffrage movement before the war and their valued contribution to the war effort during it, President John F. Kennedy of the United States had been assassinated and there was a large amount of shock and horror surrounding the brutal Vietnam war. Furthermore, Martin Luther King had left his legacy at this time, even though it

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  • Level: AS and A Level
  • Subject: Religious Studies & Philosophy
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Capital Punishment - analyse the views of Ernest van den Haag and Hugo Adam Bedau,

Marisol Torres Capital Punishment: Ernest van den Haag and Hugo Adam Bedau As a society we have an established set of rules and norms that are enforced by our justice system which we as a people have deemed as the highest power to determine when these rules and norms are broken and what appropriate punishment should be given. We live in a world filled with diversity. Not only diversity in cultures but diversity with people in terms of character and morals. Society is filled with both good upstanding people but also those people who find it less than necessary to follow any norms or rules society has created but instead find a life in crime. Crimes can range from something minimal such as theft to the most serious which is murder. This introduces us to capital punishment or more commonly termed, the death penalty. Though openly controversial, capital punishment has its share of opponents and supporters. Many philosophers have discussed issues in relation to violence, laws and punishment. Malcolm X is one such philosopher. His beliefs in violence in terms of self defense can relate to the issue of capital punishment. Malcolm X believed that one should defend themselves by all means necessary when it means self defense. He believed in non violence unless one’s life was at risk and needed defending. In such cases self defense should be practiced. In his famous speech “The

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  • Level: AS and A Level
  • Subject: Religious Studies & Philosophy
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"It is impossible to reconcile any kind of determinism with the concept of freewill." Discuss.

"It is impossible to reconcile any kind of determinism with the concept of freewill." Discuss. To answer this question, this essay will firstly describe and outline determinism and then secondly describe and outline freewill, giving examples to highlight these concepts. It will be argued that the above statement is true and false, it is not always impossible to reconcile any kind of determinism with the concept of freewill, but in particularly hard determinism is can be seen as impossible. Finally, it will be argued that especially two types of determinism (soft determinism and libertarianism) are reconciled with freewill. Determinism, a philosophical doctrine against freedom, is the theory stating that all events, physical and mental (including moral choices), are completely determined by previously existing causes that preclude free will. This theory denies the element of chance or contingency, as well as the reality of human freedom, holding that the "will" is not free but is determined by biological, environmental, social, or mystical imperatives. Since every event in our lives is determined by outside causes, then we are just some sort of robots. Freedom, on the other hand, is rooted behind the idea that we do have control over the choices we make, thus having free will, a requirement for being morally accountable for an action. But if determinism is true and we have

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  • Level: AS and A Level
  • Subject: Religious Studies & Philosophy
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In what sense (if any) was Machiavelli's approach to politics 'scientific' rather than 'moral'?

Richard Wood 0315672 GV201 Introduction to Political Theory In what sense (if any) was Machiavelli's approach to politics 'scientific' rather than 'moral'? In the Prince Machiavelli is not trying to answer any specific moral question but rather he is attempting to give reasons and guidance on why and how a Prince should come to power and hold it. Invariably this has a scientific approach as he does not try to accomplish any goal but for the Prince to assert his power. It is because 'The Prince' is more of a practical guide rather than a philosophical machination or political conjecture that Machiavelli is forced to use a scientific approach. Even when Machiavelli does state that a Prince should look after the well being of his citizens it is not because he sees a moral value in this but because it will enable the Prince to retain power. However Machiavelli does state that at times the Prince must show at least some sense of morality to his citizens even if it is just in order to consolidate his power. Wisby (1995) asserts that Machiavelli's work was more important than this however, he sees 'The Prince' as a book that discounted god as the giver of power to the ruler but 'man's will'. He also states that beyond 'The Prince' Machiavelli's work pushed for Republic's and was not entirely a scientific approach at gaining power although this was limited, "If beyond 'The

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  • Level: AS and A Level
  • Subject: Religious Studies & Philosophy
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