Religious Experience is Nothing but Fantasy. Discuss (35 Marks)
Religious Experience is Nothing but Fantasy. Discuss (35 Marks) The above criticism to religious belief was proposed by Sigmund Freud; who thought that the origin of relig exp (religious experience) is rooted in the unconscious and that they are a product of eschewed psychosexual development. Freud rejected any appeal to the supernatural to explain these occurrences as our mind regularly deludes itself, pointing to dreams as an obvious example. The materialistic approach to explaining relig exp has led scientists to pinpoint specific physical causes of this phenomena; St Paul of Tarsus is thought to have possessed a form of epilepsy. In this case, Paul's relig exp would be a fantasy but perceived as real experience. A theistic challenge to materialism is that God and organic explanations of religious phenomena. In this way our brains may be wired up to experience God; materialism does not necessarily deem all relig exp fantasy. But how does one explain those who do not experience religious phenomena? Are some people born with Gods calling card? This in my mind is where atheists and theists will never agree; theists will say God only chooses some to be his messengers and atheists will say that our genetics and upbringing predispose some of us to superstition. In this way we cannot know whether each and every religious experience is fantasy; a conclusion reached by Bertrand
Evaluate the weaknesses of design arguments for the existence of God
Evaluate the weaknesses of design arguments for the existence of God (9) The design argument is an a posteriori argument for the existence of god based on apparent design and purpose in the universe. The argument is based on an interpretation of teleology where in purpose and intelligent design appears to exist in nature beyond the scope of any such human activities. The teleological argument suggests that, given the premise, the existence of a designer can be assumed, typically presented as God. It is an inductive argument which means that we learn something new and it goes beyond the truth of the premise which may or may not be a good thing. The fall of it going beyond the truth of the premise is that we can never fully trust the conclusion which may mean that we cannot fully justify and explain the argument. The design argument is also a posteriori argument which means everything is based on experience of the world. This means that we can find evidence in the world to support the premises of the conclusion. Although, Kant emphasised that the design argument depended on the assumption that there is design in the universe. The design must be the independent work of a designer who imposed order and purpose in the universe. The argument is based on the assumption that there is irregularity, order and purpose in the universe. Kant argued that the universe may be in chaos
Explain the theodicy of Irenaeus. Irenaeus theodicy is the response to the problem of evil, which like Augustines traces back to the idea of humans free will being the source of evil.
Explain the theodicy of Irenaeus. (25 Marks) The Irenaeus Theodicy, often called Soul Making, is a counterpart to Augustine's Theodicy, yet it is also and opposing argument. Irenaeus' theodicy is the response to the problem of evil, which like Augustine's traces back to the idea of human's free will being the source of evil. While Augustine stated that evil came from humans and Adam in Genesis, Irenaeus proposes that evil is opposing the humans race to become in to God's likeness. Irenaeus believed that there was an aim in God's creation of the world, that being that humans were to be made flawless, in his likeness, although human perfection can't be made. It has to be earned, and developed through our own soul and with the correct use of free will. Creation is not yet finished. We have been made in the image of God with the potential to be like God. If we were just made to be perfect it would mean nothing to God. However, if we prove to God by the choice of free will it will show God we really care as we are choosing to do good. To back up this point Irenaeus uses the example of a mother not being able to give a child 'substantial nourishment' or solid food. This meaning, just as a young infant can't take solid foods and therefore is given milk as they are immature, humans could not receive fully formed goodness, as they were spiritually immature and so are given free will
Explain the various forms of the ontological argument
Tom Hadden "Explain The Various Forms of the Ontological Argument." a) There are a number of different ways to try and prove the existence of God. Most of these arguments have one thing in common, namely their starting points are based on experience; they are "A Posteriori," arguments. The Ontological argument, is totally different to all of these as it is an "A Priori," argument. Meaning that: It does not start from experience; it arrives at the existence of God by analysing God's essence; finally if the argument succeeds, unlike the other arguments, there is no longer any doubt that God exists. The thing that this argument hinges on is what one understands by, "necessity." Once one has understood this concept then they can come to grips with the argument. On the other hand, if one fails to understand then they will not be able to appreciate the argument. The Ontological argument starts with the statement that God is necessary. The phrase that Anselm uses is "de dicto necessary," meaning that the definition of God makes him necessary. It claims that once we discover the meaning of God, it is logically absurd to suggest his non-existence. The man who first suggested this argument was St Anselm (1033-1109.) Unsurprisingly he starts this argument with a definition of God, defining him as "That than which nothing greater can be conceived," this being the definition he gave
Explain how Benthams version of Utilitarianism can be used to decide the best course of action
Explain how Bentham's version of Utilitarianism can be used to decide the best course of action. Jeremy Bentham, father and founder of Utilitarianism, first proposed his theory, now known as and hereby referred to as Act Utilitarianism, as the basis for a complete social reform. Whilst Bentham may have failed in this aspect, he did lay the foundations for future ethicists such as J.S. Mill, P. Singer and H. Sidgwick to expand and explore his theory of Utilitarianism further. Bentham's original theory of Utilitarianism can be boiled down to one underlying principle; the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Bentham proposed that an action's moral worth can be determined by the use of the Hedonic Calculus. This formula takes into account the intensity, duration and number of people affected (amongst other factors) and places a numerical value on the outcome. This may seem like a rather clinical and mathematic way to try and measure what it ultimately an abstract concept such as pleasure or happiness, and subsequently critics have said Bentham's version of Utilitarianism can be used to justify horrific acts such as torture, gang rape or murder. An example of when Act Utilitarianism could be used to decide the best course of action would be in a group of people choosing what topping to order on their pizza. If, for example, 3 out of the four people wanted
Explain the problem of evil (25 marks). Are the theodicies attempts to deal with moral and natural evil and suffering doomed, in the face of so much evil and suffering?
The problem of evil A) Explain the problem of evil (25 marks) The fact that there is evil in the world is a problem for theists as they claim to worship a god who is all-knowing, all- powerful and completely good, the problem arises because surely such a being would be aware of evil and suffering in the world as they are all-knowing , would have the power to prevent it from happening as he is all-powerful and as he is supposedly completely good ,and he would not allow for such evil to ever even occur, as Christians believe him to bear all three of these divine attributes , the allowance of evil to persist on a daily basis throughout the world surely disproves the existence of God. There are two separate types of evil that affect the world, firstly there is moral evil. Moral evil defines the bad actions of us as humans such as: rape, theft and murder, where as Natural evil makes reference to the natural processes of the world such as: volcanoes, earthquakes and forest fires, it is said that as humans commit such atrocities as murder through moral evil , natural evil occurs as punishment. The logical problem of evil is defined by Epicurus "If he is willing and is unable, he is feeble, which is not in accordance with the character of God, if he is able and unwilling, he is envious... if he is neither willing nor able, he is both envious and feeble...if he is both willing
Mills comments about the problem of evil are fatal to the teleological argument.
'Mill's comments about the problem of evil are fatal to the teleological argument.' Mill was born a year after the death of Paley, the most famous advocate and contributor of the teleological argument, and as an empiricist, fervently disagreed with his works and the works of his predecessors in Aquinas and the classical philosophers of Plato and Aristotle among others. Mill challenged the idea that evidence of design in the world proves the existence of the God of classical theism because evidence supported either the non-existence of God or a God that did not have the attributes accepted by Christianity. Mill pointed towards natural empirical evidence to disprove the teleological argument. He argued that because there is evil and suffering in the world, then the designer cannot have been all-powerful, all-knowing and all-loving; the very foundations of modern Christianity. Mill believed that had the creator been all-loving then the suffering of humanity would not have been included in the design. As it is, then at least one of these three essential attributes must be missing. This argument on the problem of evil and suffering points potentially fatal flaws in both the teleological argument and the Christian concept of God in general. As Mill points towards the Problem of Evil and Suffering, the Christian perspective of this problem must be used. The theodicies of Augustine
What is right and wrong is a widely opinionated discrepancy among the human race
What is right and wrong is a widely opinionated discrepancy among the human race. It varies between cultures, societies, religion, traditions, and endless influential factors. Ethical relativism is described by John Ladd as the "doctrine that the moral rightness and wrongness of actions varies from society and that there are no absolute universal moral standards binding on all men at all times. Accordingly, it holds that whether or not it is right for an individual to act in a certain way depends on or is relative to the society to which he belongs"(Pojman, 24). Within the meaning of ethical relativism we can derive two theses; cultural relativism and the dependency thesis. Ethical relativism is a problematic theory because there are so many differences within cultures, and individual choices might not always be morally right choices. Because of this, what is culturally acceptable is not always morally right. Ethical relativism also has some objections towards the more specific theories of subjectivism and conventionalism. Ethical relativism is supported due to the narrowing view of ethnocentrism, which is causing great "prejudice tantamount to racism and sexism" (Pojman, 25). Society is moving away from their ethnocentric view of the world, and allowing for more diversity in what is culturally right and wrong. Moral positions are being based on what their society is
The strengths and weaknesses of utilitarianism
(i) What are the main advantages of utilitarianism? (21 marks) (ii) Identify the main problems of utilitarianism. To what extent do these make utilitarianism unacceptable? (9) Utilitarianism was developed by Jeremy Bentham and is a modern form of the hedonistic ethical theory which teaches that the end of human conduct is happiness, and that consequently the discrimination norm which distinguishes conduct into right and wrong pleasure and pain. The aforementioned Bentham lived in era of great social and scientific change and unrest. He therefore, because of his social surroundings developed a theory that stated that right actions are those who produce the most pleasure for everyone affected and wrong actions consequently are those who do not. He coined the phrase "the greatest good for the greatest number" which summarises his aim which was to iron out the deep inequalities of his time. Bentham being a hedonist believed that all humans naturally pursued pleasure and conversely avoids pain. To measure this pain and pleasure, Bentham created the 'hedonic calculus' which weighs up the pleasure and pain which might arise from moral actions to decide the best option. The formula should determine which act has the best tendency and therefore right. He measured happiness with seven different elements including; Intensity and duration; certainty and uncertainty. John Stuart Mill
Theodicy Essay: - St Augustine and Ireneus
Theodicy Essay: - St Augustine and Ireneus . St Augustine's Theodicy In the beginning, God created a wholly good creation that was mutable meaning that it had the potential to change. The creation was rich and diverse and there was harmony and balance in it. However, God gave the angels and mankind freewill, which brought sin and decay into the world. Sin is the absence of good and those who sin will be punished. They will be punished in hell. [Augustine's theodicy 5th century] He wrote it in a book called the confessions of St Augustine. Evaluation Therefore, God is not responsible for evil the angels and mankind are, since God gave them freewill. A question that could be asked is why, if creation was wholly good, would the angels choose to rebel. This could be responded to that since the creation was rich and diverse there must be grades of morality as well. I.e. greater and lesser goods. It can be said that Augustine's clarity on evil merely being a lack of good is successful. Augustine said that evil is a 'privation', merely a lack of goodness. Like a bird without a wing or as St Basil said an eye without sight. Many point out that if God is all loving then why would He plan hell as part of His creation. Scholars respond that since God is all knowing and, knowing that man would rebel he planned for His only son Jesus to give people a second chance. That is why in
