⬥ 1970s ‘Homeland Movement’, working towards strengthening of tradⁿ
⬥ Future cultural revival
The effect of missⁿ & missionary activity on Abor. belief systems from the original contact period though to more recent times
PRE-1960:
⬥ attempts to ‘civilise’ and Xⁿ-ise Abor. due to misconceptⁿ of primitive lifestyle.
⬥ 1814 Govenor Macquarie est. Native Institute for Abor. Children
⬥ 1820s more ch. missⁿ est.’d, some close down, h/e sets pattern for future attempts to ‘civilise’ Abor.
⬥ 1870s missionaries again b/cm interested in Abor. welfare
more ch. missions est.’d
⬥ for next 100 yrs, Abor. b/cm increasingly institutionalised.
⬥ many Abor. adopt Xⁿ values
POST-1960:
⬥ shift in Xⁿ thinking begin to seek greater recognitⁿ of Abor. rights, instigating referenda & land rights campaigns
⬥ improved r/ship w/ Abor. ppl: ch’s have apologised for involvement w/ Stolen Generatⁿ
⬥ involvement w/ health care issues, social services, reconciliatⁿ
eg. Sea of Hands, pilgrimage to Uluru.
THE LAND RIGHTS MOVEMENT
Abor. spirituality & its inextricable connectⁿ to the land, & current issues
⬥ 1983 Abor. Land Rights Act – recognised trad.’al ownership
- sys. of Land Councils est’d
- govt. funding to purchase trad.’al lands
⬥ 1990 ATSIC est.’d, empowering Abor. to decide on govt. funding
⬥ 1992 Mabo Decisⁿ - confirmed native title: High Court recognised Abor. ppl had ownership of land prior to Eur. occupatⁿ, Terra Nulius is erased.
⬥ 1993 Native Title Act, confirming Mabo Decisⁿ - set up tribunal to mediate claims
- est.’d Indigenous Land Fund
- provided Right to Negotiate (Native Title holders consulted prior to govt. planning)
⬥ 1996 Wik Decisⁿ - est.’d concept of co-existence b/w native title & land held under pastoral lease.
⬥ 1997 Howard introduces ‘Ten Point Plan’ to put Wik Decisⁿ into practice.
⬥ 1998 Native Title Amendment Act passed, empowering states to legislate their own native title regimes.
CH.’S VIEW ON LAND RIGHTS
⬥ ch.’s support land rights, seen as way to reconcile, maintain Abor. culture, bring justice, and solve spiritual & econ. problems thus breaking cycle of poverty.
THE IMPACT OF ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY ON CONTEMPORARY CHRISTIAN WORSHIP
⬥ involvement & support of Xⁿ ch. on Abor. Reconciliatⁿ.
⬥ greater Xⁿ ecological view of land
⬥ intertwining of Aboriginal ritual & ceremony in Xⁿ liturgy
⬥ geographical factors: impact is usu. localised & more apparent in regions of more Abor. residence. eg. Katharine, Redfern.
⬥ increased diversity perhaps w/ est.’ment of AEF.
Foundation Study 2
Religion in Australia from 1901 to the Present
THE PRIMARY INFLUENCE OF XITY IN AUSTRALIAN SOCIETY WITHIN THE PERIOD 1901 TO THE PRESENT
EDUCATⁿ
⬥ By 20th cent., strong network of Cath. schools
⬥ h/e, funds needed strong opp.ⁿ to Cath. schools receiving State Aid.
⬥ schools of other denominatⁿ did not req. State Aid higher fees
⬥ 1962 Goulburn Schools Strike – 2000 students transferred to public schools after govt. suggested a Cath. school shut down over trivial matter. Public schools could only accept ½ these students – demonstrated sig. of Cath. schools. Funding for Cath. schools thus began.
⬥ TODAY Cath. schools educate 20% of Aus. students
Ang. ch. settings up inexpensive schools in W. Syd.
2 Cath. Uni’s – Notre Dame & ACU
SOCIAL WELFARE
⬥ in early 20th cent. contributed > govt. assistance.
⬥ after Great Depressⁿ, ch.’s campaigned for benefits for unemployed
⬥ sys. that addresses issues such as poverty, unemployment, disability, housing, aged care, youth services, migrant support, Abor. services, drug educatⁿ & treatment
⬥ org.ⁿ incl. Salvatⁿ Army, St Vincent de Paul, Anglicare, Centacare, Wesley Missⁿ
The interrelationship between the Australian physical and cultural environment and the development of Xity in Australia
SECTRARIANISM
⬥ Tensⁿ from GBr. & Ireland brought to Aus.
⬥ Anti-Cath. feeling stirred up by Irish immigratⁿ, State Aid debate, Cath. decrees against mixed marriages, Mannix’s anti-conscriptⁿ cause.
⬥ Vatican II enabled Cath. to join in ecumenical acitivty.
ABOR. DISPOSSEⁿ
⬥ Ch. participated in destructⁿ of Abor. culture & spirituality
⬥ Xⁿ approach has undergone dramatic change in prev. 40 yrs – undergoing reconcilatⁿ process
INDIFFERENCE TO RELIGION
⬥ maj. of ppl. indicate they believe in a religion, only ½ of ppl. attend ch. regularly.
⬥ attendance has declined after 1970s after dissatisfactⁿ w/ ch.
⬥ most Xⁿ seek rel. rites (at birth, marriage, death), h/e rel. is not part of reg. routine.
RESPONSES BY SOME RELIGIOUS TRADITⁿ TO SOCIAL CHANGE & INITIATIVES IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FROM 1901 TO THE PRESENT
Ministry in Rural & Outback Australia
CATH. CH.
⬥ many rel. orders fr. Ireland came to Aus. to work in rural areas. eg. Patrician Bro., Dominican Sis.
⬥ Sis. of St Joseph founded by Mary Mackillop – ministry was specific to rural areas.
BUSH CH. AID SOCIETY, BUSH BROTHERHOOD
⬥ to est. evangelical presence in rural areas.
⬥ est.’d in fear of ‘Cath. aggresⁿ’ in bush.
FRONTIER SERVICES
⬥ est.’d 1912 for Presbyterian Ch. by Rev. John Flynn.
⬥ est.’d religious, health & pastoral services in outback Aus.
⬥ Flynn also est. Royal Flying Dr Services in late 1920s.
The role of religious tradⁿ in the labour movement, conscriptⁿ, wars, & the Great Depressⁿ
LABOUR MOVEMENT
⬥ econ. & social class leads Cath. to ALP
⬥ ALP was dominated by communists & thus atheists Cath. oppⁿ
⬥ Cath. B.A. Santamaria forms ‘The Movement’ proposed that if a Cath. member of each trade union ran for president, supported by the bishops, priests & thus community, each of the trade unions would be dominated by Cath.
⬥ ALP leaders notices growing Cath. influence splits ALP
WAR & CONSCRIPTⁿ
WWI -
⬥ Hughes (ALP) wants to enforce conscriptⁿ
⬥ Irish Cath. concerned abt fighting in Ireland (rebellion against GBr) Hughes expelled fr. ALP
⬥ Archbishop Mannix violently opp. conscriptⁿ
⬥ 2 Referenda – both ‘no’ wins narrowly
⬥ Pro-consciptⁿ Prot. bitter sectarianism encouraged Prot. not to hire Cath.
VN -
⬥ religious leaders initiated & involved w/ protests eg. Moratorium Movement in 1970
⬥ ch. leaders have since spoken out against war as a solⁿ to i/national prob. eg Gulf War.
GREAT DEPRESSⁿ
⬥ ch.’s provided practical relief in form of shelter, clothing, meals through orgⁿ such as Salvatⁿ Army etc.
⬥ campaigned for govt. to provide benefits to unemployed - welfare
⬥ h/e, ch’.s played a relatively low-key role
The role & responses of religious tradⁿ to –
SEXUALITY
IVF - Xⁿ Ch.
⬥ Ang. ch. supports use for infertile couples
⬥ Cath. ch. strong opponent due to numerous implicatⁿ (multiple conceptⁿ, destrucⁿ of embryos)
⬥ Cath. ch. in Melb. appealed to overturn Fed. Court’s decisⁿ to allow single women & lesbians IVF
Islam
⬥ IVF acceptable due to encouragement to have children
CONTRACEPTⁿ - Xⁿ Ch.
⬥ Ang. & Orth. ch. deem permissible
⬥ Cath. ch. strongly opp. use – Humanae Vitae
⬥ Cath. belief in its contributⁿ to social problems & family breakdown
Islam
⬥ permissible, esp. if mother’s health is threatened
⬥ h/e, parents encouraged to have as many children as possible
HOMOSEXUALITY - Xⁿ Ch.
⬥ is seen as sinful, h/e believe homosexuals should be treated w/ compassⁿ & sensitivity
Islam
⬥ completely forbidden punishment is executⁿ
ABORTⁿ
Xity
⬥ Cath – Pope has never made infallible declaratⁿ concerning abotⁿ, h/e, he states that he believes it to be wrong
⬥ absolute morality – conservatives & Cath. believe evil cannot be eradicated w/ evil.
actⁿ - eg. ‘Society for the Protectⁿ of God’s Precious Innocents’ are active in Aus, lobbying & campaigning.
little impact, h/e Cath. hospitals refuse to perform procedure.
⬥ relative morality – Ang. Prot. Orth. believe that it is possible in some circumstances.
⬥ Prot. ch.’s have varying stances on the issue. Overall in regards to protesting, they are less active than Cath.
Judaism
⬥ Orth. Jews – strictly follow Commandments ∴ oppose.
⬥ Reform Jews - adaptatⁿ of tradⁿ & acceptable under some circumstances. do not oppose necessary abortⁿ
⬥ small popⁿ ∴ little protest.
Islam
⬥ abortion not approved of but is allowed if necessary, h/e not permitted under econ. reasons.
⬥ Hadith declares life is breathed into foetus at 120 days, ∴ abortⁿ after this is not permitted.
Buddhism/Hinduism
⬥ apolitical & thus do not perceive stance on issue is necessary.
EUTHANASIA
Xity
⬥ reject it as they believe medicine is never a case of being 100% definite, eg. ‘miracle’ cases.
Judaism
⬥ deemed permissible.
Islam
⬥ belief that one should not attempt to manipulate life, as life is a gift & Allah decides when one dies.
Buddhism/Hinduism
⬥ as for abortⁿ
THE DEVELOPMENT OF RELIGIOUS PLURALITY & DISTRIBUTⁿ/PROFILE OF RELIGIOUS ADHERENCE TODAY
Immigratⁿ after WWII
⬥ many Jews fr. Europe.
⬥ large no. of migrants fr. GBr. & Eur many non-Irish Cath. & Orth. Xⁿ, thus Aus. still Xⁿ country.
⬥ govt policy: assimilatⁿ
The Ending of the White Aus. Policy
⬥ stated that, fr. 1091, non-whites could only enter Aus. under temp. permit.
⬥ policy gradually dismantled b/w 1952 and 1972
⬥ fr. 1952: Jap. wives of Aus servicemen admitted
⬥ fr. 1972: Whitlam govt, commited to non-discriminatⁿ, removes race fr. selectⁿ criteria.
⬥ immigrants arrive fr. Lebanon, VN, Balkans intro. new rel.
⬥ Cath. increased in no. & cultural diversity, b/cm Aus.’ most multicultural religⁿ
⬥ dramatic growth of Orth. Xⁿ
⬥ Ang. denⁿ least increase
⬥ Islam b/cm largest religⁿ outside Xity.
⬥ Buddhist popⁿ increases rapidly
⬥ Hinduism likewise – grows 54% 1991-1996.
The Formatⁿ of the Uniting Ch. in Australia in 1977
⬥ formed fr. Methodist, Presbyterian & Congregational ch.’s, although not all members converted
⬥ is the only ch. of Aus. origin.
⬥ gives women equal opportunity men for ordination.
New Age Religions
⬥ non conventional, alternative rel. b/cm popular during 1970s due to perceived failure of Xⁿ ch.’s
⬥ followers are attracted to views that are not western, as Xⁿ ch. is part of western est.’ment & its prob.’s
⬥ interest in belief sys. of indigenous ppl
⬥ favours creatⁿ-centred spirituality
Religious conversⁿ & denominational switching
⬥ free movement b/w Prot. denⁿ part of Aus. ch. life for past cent.
⬥ recently: high %age switching in short pd
last 5 yrs: 14% Prot. rate compared to 1% Cath. in last 5 yrs.
⬥ most switching is to Pentecostal ch.’s (16% in last 5 yrs) & more modern denⁿ move away fr. mainstream ch.’s
⬥ Cath. ch h/e is relatively stable – low switching rate.
RELIGIOUS CONVERSION AND DENOMINATIOAL SWITCHING:
- One of the most important forces shaping denominational balance in Christianity in Aus.
- The level of switching in and out of the Catholic Church is very low.
- People tend to switch denominations to find the “right” congregation.
- 14% of Anglicans and Protestants have switched within the last five years opposed to 1% of Catholics.
- Pentecostal benefited most with 28% switching in and 15% switching to many other Pentecostal denominations Pentecostal grew by 16% in five years.
- Main losers are Anglican, uniting, Presbyterian and Lutheran. Commitment clearly to the congregation not denomination.
- 65% of Catholics see lifelong denominational loyalty is very important.
Pentecostalism & the Charismatic Movement
⬥ Pentecostal ch. increased membership 16% 1991-1996
⬥ have highest ch. attendance w/in Xity
⬥ largest grp. is 30-39 yrs - 24%
⬥ practice is v. lively & active
⬥ Charismatic: emphasis placed on gifts of Holy Spirit
⬥ ‘revolving door syndrome’ – membership of many in Pentecostal ch. is only b/w 9mths-2yrs, thus high switching rate
PENTECOSTALISM AND THE CHARISMATIC MOVEMENT.
- Pentecostalism is a diverse Christian movement that stresses the gifts of the Holy Spirit.
- They have an evangelical understanding of the bible as the absolute rule of life and emphasises the gifts of the Holy Spirit that comes from being reborn.
- Pentecostals believe in “speaking in tongues” is a gift from the Holy Spirit. Other gift such as healing is also stressed.
- Services are enthusiastic, full of scriptures, singing, uncontrollable holy laughter.
- 1996, 10% of attenders in an average week is Pentecostal churches.
- Developed from Melbourne’s “sunshine revival” in 1920’’s. mainly attracts the young people.
- The “Charismatic movement” crosses denominational boundaries. They belong to any Christian denomination and profess a powerful experience of gifts (charisms) of the Holy Spirit including speaking in tongues.
- Hold regular prayer meetings of similar informal style and exuberance as Pentecostals.
RECOGNITⁿ OF COMMON ELEMENTS IN RELIGIOUS EXPRESSⁿ & WORLD VIEWS IN AUSTRALIA TODAY
Religious harmony & Interfaith Dialogue
⬥ post-war pd forces reassessment of sectarian ways
⬥ differences in beliefs & practices marked more by mutual tolerance & respect rather than antagonism.
⬥ The Council of Xⁿ & Jews – promotes understanding
⬥ Muslim/Xⁿ dialogues have been est.’d, also promoting understanding
Ecumenical Developments w/in Xity
⬥ ecumenical d/ments initially Prot. affair, after Vatican II Cath. b/cm involved & later Orth. ch.
⬥ focus is on: social justice, welfare, migrant concerns, inter-ch. marriages.
⬥ National Council of Ch.’s in Aus
est.’d 1946 – initially Aus. Council of Ch.’s
1994 – NCCA succeeds, incl. Cath.
⬥ formatⁿ of Uniting Ch. 1977
⬥ Syd. College of Divinity (SCD) est.’d
⬥ 1989: World Conference on Rel. & Peace held in Melb
turning pt for inter-rel. relatⁿ in Aus.
Joint Inter-faith & Ecumenical Initiatives
⬥ 1988: Ang., Cath. & Uniting Ch. take more active role in social issues by releasing document ‘Prison: The Last Resort’ critiquing justice sys.
⬥ ch.’s have strong tradⁿ of providing aid in times of crisis.
eg. E. Timor in 1999 where NCCA takes lead in prov. aid.
⬥ 1993: Council for Abor. Reconciliatⁿ brings together rep. fr. various faiths.
⬥ 2000: Interfaith Appeal for Peace staged in Syd. against rel. violence in Indonesia
initiated by NCCA & Aus. Fedⁿ of Islamic Councils.
⬥ 2000: Sorry Day & indigenous rights
⬥ more recently: issue concerning asylum seekers.
Cross Religion Study
Religion & Ethics
THE NATURE, ROLE & SIGNIFICANCE OF ETHICS
Xity
⬥ sources for ethics found ins scriptures, the natural law, human experience, Xⁿ belief & authorities
emphasis given to sources varies w/in variants. Cath. ch. places greater emphasis on natural law & authoritative bodies whereas Prot. approach is v. biblical, particularly in Reformatⁿ ch.’s.
⬥ Deontological view – concerned w/ the preservatⁿ & sanctity of human life
fundamental to Xⁿ ethics
⬥ based on Sacred Text – Bible – h/e each applied differently amongst denⁿ
⬥ human person is a moral subject in control of moral actⁿ & has a choice b/w good & evil
⬥ Xity traditionally bases morality on Ten Commandments (O.T)
⬥ Beatitudes (N.T) key ethical text for Xⁿ
explains that faith must be lived, followers must do more than the minimum
⬥ Matt 22:37-39 Love the Lord your God w/ all your heart…Love your neighbour as you love yourself is foundatⁿ to Xⁿ belief & ethics
⬥ followers strive to imitate their leader – Jesus – a moral teacher in eg. the Washing of the Disciples Feet, as religious adherence is as much abt practice as it is abt theory sacraments initiate & renew Xⁿ commitment.
⬥ ethics determines actⁿ - human destiny is a motivatⁿ for ethical living.
⬥ conscience important aspect of decisⁿ-making process
⬥ over time, ethical teachings have been developed & principles are set down for varying situatⁿ
⬥ forgiveness an important teaching eg. in the Parable of the Prodigal Son
⬥ believe that through Death & Resurrectⁿ Jesus conquered sin & won salvatⁿ celebratⁿ of Eucharist
Islam
⬥ Allah is the one God – Muslims frequently repeat Allah’s 99 names in prayer
⬥ Qur’an & Sunnah infallible word of God & principal sources of moral judgement strictly observed
provides all foundatⁿ values & fundamental guidelines
⬥ holistically literal interpretatⁿ of Sacred texts, or based on interpretatⁿ of jurists
⬥ Ijma & Qiyas are 2ndary sources based on the Qur’an & Sunnah, also sig. in the deriving of ethics. Makes rulings not explicity outlines mentioned in Qur’an or Sunnah.
Shi’ites do not agree to the viability of these texts. They rely solely upon the primary sources.
⬥ Shar’ia ‘straight path’ – Muslim code of law, regulating all aspects of life & used to make moral decisⁿ
⬥ specific advice is found in Sunnah (the practice of Muhammad)
Five Pillars – Shadada: declaratⁿ of faith
– Salat: prayer
– Zakat: almsgiving
– Sawm: fasting
– Hajj: pilgrimage
Muslims seek to imitate Muhammad
⬥ Muslims seek submissⁿ to the will of Allah or Jihad fundamental to Islam, as life on earth is temporary & preparatⁿ for eternal life.
⬥ Haraam: forbidden actⁿ
⬥ Halal: permissible actⁿ, graded - compulsory-recommended-indifferent-disliked
⬥ Faith in Allah involves actⁿ Amal
RELIGIOUS ETHICS & THEIR EFFECT ON THE EVERYDAY LIVES OF BELIEVERS
The way in which Xity gives ethical guidance to marriage & divorce
⬥ Prot. ch. has approach of adaptatⁿ towards divorce
Ang. ch: Dr Peter Jensen currently reviewing procedure for remarriage of ‘guilty parties’, making it easier to remarry
⬥ Cath. & Orth. ch’s view marriage as sacrament, also view of some higher Ang. ch’s
⬥ Catholic Church law – Canon Law – has est.’d that ‘the essential properties of marriage are unity & indissolubility’
⬥ Cath. ch. has strict approach desire to preserve integrity of Scriptures.
‘Man must not separate…what God has joined together’ (Matt 19:6)
‘anyone who divorces his wife…and marries another commits adultery’ (Matt 19:9)
⬥ Cath. believe b/cs marriage is divine, it cannot be overturned by human law
⬥ infidelity is an exceptⁿ, h/e, & an annulment can be obtained
divorce allowed on ‘the ground of unchastity’ (Matt)
⬥ church’s original approach of complete rejection of divorce has, rather, become one of urging its prevention and promoting compassion, evident after Pope John Paul II issued a document in 1981 declaring that divorcees ‘are not excommunicated’.
⬥ in all cases, divorce is regrettable.
The way in which Islam gives ethical guidance to marriage & divorce
⬥ diff. in opinion b/w Sunni & Shi’ite concerning temp. marriage, h/e few other distinctⁿ concerning marriage & divorce.
⬥ marriage perceived as the binding material in Islamic society
⬥ h/e, marriage perceived as contract rather than sacrament
occasⁿ of marriage does not have to occur in presence of rel. official, & no exchange of eternal vows are made before Allah
⬥ legitimacy of polygamy: ‘choice, two, three, or four’ (Qur’an 4:3)
⬥ condemnatⁿ of celibacy, sig. of marriage:
‘When a man marries, he has fulfilled half his religion’ (Hadith)
‘Marriage is my sunnah’ (Hadith)
⬥ divorce is permissible, albeit ‘the most detestable act God has permitted’ (Hadith)
⬥ detailed procedures are prescribed in order to proceed with divorce
eg. allowing Iddah pd before 1st declaring divorce, in order to allow time for relfectⁿ & possible reconciliatⁿ
⬥ men can grant divorce, whilst women can apply to be granted one.
Divorce by talaq is right of the husband
otherwise, the woman can ask for divorce by ‘khul – case is presented to court.
Whilst the Christian Sacred Text broadly discourages or promotes certain elements surrounding marriage and divorce, it does not instruct its followers to specifically follow numerous guidelines as evident in the Muslim Sacred Text.
