[2.2] How are genetically Modified Organisms used?
GMO’s have many uses and tend to be most commonly used in plants and animal for Agricultural productivity(enhancing products), for environmental purposes(environmentally friendly pesticides, insecticides and herbicides) and to aid human health(growing humans organs).
[2.3] The process Involved
Primarily, you must locate and then extract the required gene. Locating the specific gene is bound to be difficult. The gene is extracted by using enzymes also known as ‘chemical scissors’. Secondly, you must put the gene into a microbe cell which involves the use of plasmids (which are found in bacteria cells). Plasmids are small circles of DNA; they can move from one cell to another and make copies if themselves. After fixing the required gene accurately on a plasmid, it can then be transferred into a microbial cell, once it is in the microbial cell it will duplicate every time the microbe cell divides. Every new cell is called a clone because they’re all have identical genetic make-up, in just a few days there will be millions of clones and each one will contain a copy of the first donated gene, this is also referred to as gene cloning. Now all that remains is to persuade the microbial cell to begin making the appropriate product and then create an ethical method of collecting it. Below is a diagram draw by my self which illustrates the process above.
(Toole, 1995)
Chapter 3: Evidence
[3.1] For and Against Arguments/Views
Views For:
- Supporters of GMO technology say it will lower costs for farmers, increase crop yields, decrease the need for chemicals and help to feed millions in a hungry world.
- Some proponents argue the world has two choices if it keeps growing and wishes to avoid food shortages: either alters the genetic makeup of crops so that they increase production from the same space or clear more savanna and rainforest, thus reducing biodiversity, to expand the world's productive farm land.
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Developing and 3rd world countries are in favour of GMO’s as they can put an end to poverty, illness and starvation.
Views Against:
- Opponents are concerned about the health risks and the threat to the environment, saying not enough studies have been done to prove it is safe and will not harm natural species. They also fear the impact on biodiversity and control of crops by large corporations.
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Green groups say there have been no long-term health tests on GMOs, claiming that biotech plants can contain antibiotic resistant genes which may be able to pass on this resistance to humans, and insects may also develop resistance to GMO toxins. They also warn of the dangers that GMO plants can pose to traditional and organic agriculture with the risk of cross-pollination and long-term contamination of soil.
(http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/29832/story.htm)
[3.1.1] Potential Benefits
Benefits for Agricultural Productivity:
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Better resistance to stress - If crops can be made more resistant to pest outbreaks, it would reduce the danger of crop failure. Similar benefits could result from better resistance to severe weather.
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More nutritious staple foods - By inserting genes into crops such as rice and wheat, we can increase their food value, for instance rice has no been modified to contain Vitamin A. As rice feeds almost 50% of the world’s population it can help reduce Vitamin A deficiency (which leads to blindness).
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More productive farm animals – Genes might be inserted to increase milk yield in cattle.
Environmental Benefits:
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More food from less land - Improved productivity from GMOs might mean that farmers in the next century won't have to bring so much marginal land into cultivation.
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GMOs might reduce the environmental impact of food production and industrial processes - Genetically engineered resistance to pests and diseases could greatly reduce the chemicals needed for crop protection.
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Bioremediation- Rehabilitation of damaged land may also become possible through organisms bred to restore nutrients and soil structure.
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Longer shelf lives - The genetic modification of fruits and vegetables can make them less likely to spoil in storage or on the way to market. This could expand trade opportunities as well as reduce massive wastage incurred in transport and supply.
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Bio fuels - Organic matter could be bred to provide energy. Plant material fuel, or biomass, has enormous energy potential. For example, the waste from sugar cane or sorghum can provide energy, especially in rural areas. It may be possible to breed plants specifically for this purpose. And other unexpected, useful products could prove of huge value.
Benefits For Human Health:
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Investigation of diseases with genetic fingerprinting - The Fingerprinting of animal and plant diseases is already possible. This technique allows researchers to know exactly what an organism is by looking at its genetic blueprint.
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Vaccines and medicines - Plants are being engineered to produce vaccines, proteins and other pharmaceutical products. This process is called ‘pharming’.
(http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/focus/2003/gmo7.htm)
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[3.1.2] Potential Negative effects
Negative Effects On The Environment:
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Genes can end up in unexpected places - Through ‘gene escape’ they can pass on to other members of the same species and perhaps other species. Genes introduced in GMOs are no exception, and interactions might occur at gene, cell, plant and ecosystem level. Problems could result if, for example, herbicide-resistance genes got into weeds. So far, research on this is inconclusive, with scientists divided - often bitterly. But there is scientific consensus that once widely released, recalling transgenes or foreign DNA sequences, whose safety is still subject to scientific debate, will not be feasible.
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Genes can mutate with harmful effect - It is not yet known whether artificial insertion of genes could destabilize an organism, encouraging mutations, or whether the inserted gene itself will keep stable in the plant over generations. There is no conclusive data on this issue.
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‘Sleeper’ genes could be accidentally switched on and active genes could become ‘silent’ - Organisms contain genes that are activated under certain conditions -- for example, under attack from pathogens or severe weather. When a new gene is inserted, a ‘promoter’ gene is also inserted to switch it on. This could activate a ‘sleeper’ gene in inappropriate circumstances. This is especially relevant in long-lived organisms - such as trees. Sometimes the expression of genes is even ‘silenced’ as a result of unknown interactions with the inserted gene.
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Interaction with wild and native populations- GMOs could compete or breed with wild species. Especially if grown in areas that are centres of origin of that crop.
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Impact on birds, insects and soil biota - Potential risks to non-target species, such as birds, pollinators and micro-organisms, is another important issue. Nobody quite knows the impact of horizontal flow of GM pollen to bees' gut or of novel gene sequences in plants to fungi and soil and rumen bacteria. Besides, it is feared that widespread use of GM crops could lead to the development of resistance in insect populations exposed to the GM crops.
Potential negative effects on human health:
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Transfer of allergenic genes - These could be accidentally transferred to other species, causing dangerous reactions in people with allergies.
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Mixing of GM products in the food chain - Unauthorized GM products have appeared in the food chain.
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Transfer of antibiotic resistance - Genes that confer antibiotic resistance are inserted into GMOs as "markers" to indicate that the process of gene transfer has succeeded. Concerns have been expressed about the possibility that these "marker genes" could confer resistance to antibiotics.
(http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/focus/2003/gmo8.htm)
[3.2] Golden Rice Discussion
What is Golden Rice? And What Is Its Purpose?
Golden rice is a variety of rice (Oryza sativa) produced through genetic engineering to biosynthesize the precursors of beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A) in the edible parts of rice. Golden rice was developed as a fortified food to be used in areas where there is a lack of Vitamin A in the diet.
Here is an illustration detailing theares affected by the deficiency most countries with the exception of a few have had data collected and are in categories which tell us whether Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is under control or not.
Research that led to golden rice was conducted with the goal of helping children who suffer from Vitamin A deficiency (VAD). At the beginning of the 21st century, 124 million people, in 118 countries in Africa and South East Asia, were estimated to be affected by VAD. VAD is responsible for 1-2 million deaths, 500,000 cases of irreversible blindness and millions of cases of xerophthalmia annually Children and pregnant women are at highest risk. Vitamin A is supplemented orally and by injection in areas where the diet is deficient in Vitamin A. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rice)
Opposition
Critics of genetically engineered crops, such as , raised various concerns, one of which was the low amount of Vitamin A in golden rice. The first strains developed had only 1.6 micrograms of beta-carotene per gram of rice, which would mean that a person would have to eat 1.5–2 of the rice per day to get the recommended daily allowance of pro-vitamin A. With this apparently solved by the development of lines with increased beta carotene the other objections are still standing. Greenpeace for instance opposes all , and is concerned that golden rice is a Trojan horse that will open the door to more widespread use of GMOs.
The aleurone layer that surrounds the rice endosperm is removed by a process called milling or polishing in most countries, to improve the shelf life of the rice. Brown rice with the aleurone intact contains more B vitamins, iron, manganese, selenium, zinc and phosphorus than milled rice. The Institute of Science in Society claims that if rice was not milled that supplementation would not be necessary. However USDA data shows that brown rice does not contain any more beta carotene than milled rice. Scientists at the International Rice Research Institute are screening rice , and trying conventional breeding approaches for breeding varieties with increased beta carotene in the aleurone. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_rice)
[3.3] Reliability
To assure I have taken reliable and unbiased information I have used varied sources of information (books, posters, websites and workbooks) and all of them have given me the same concept therefore on my judgment believe my recourses are reliable and unbiased because the give both views.
Chapter 4: Conclusion
[4] Conclusion
To conclude I believe that GMO’s have high potential and bring very positive qualities and those qualities can be adapted to tailor many things and can help many lives. But in contrast to this, after considering both the positive and negative aspects of GMO’s I have left myself feeling uneasy and curious of the long-term flaws and health risks associated with the negative effects that are describe in the case study, even though the positive side of GMO’s are very pleasing and can come to a great use to all people of the world somehow the downsides overpower my thoughts through fear of changes for the worse of things i.e. “The transfer of anti-biotic resistance” can be life threatening I passed on to the wrong organisms . Overall I consider both sides of the case but I think they must be studied more until they reach a point of stability where there are no risk factors involved.
Chapter 5: Suggestions/Recommendations
[5] Suggestions/Recommendations
If GMO’s are stabilized to the extent that they will not affect any other plant/animal, I would suggest that GMO’s should be used to bring round a world revolution ending poverty, illness and starvation (especially in badly affected areas of the world) because they can be easily donated to third world/developing countries through charities offering to send GMO plants/animals to those affected parts of the world giving them a better chance of living on nutritious food rather than the natural, non-GM foods.
Chapter 6: Bibliography
[6] Bibliography
“Exploring Science QCA Pupils Year 9 Second Edition Paper”, Pearson Education Limited (2002)
Genetically Modified Catalogue No.T45, ©Pictorial Charts Educational Trust (2001)
Toole, Glenn and Susan. (1995) “Understanding Biology For Advance Level 3rd
Edition”