Penicillin Terms
Alexander Fleming: Person often credited with the discovery of penicillin and its properties. For this discovery, he was knighted in 1943 and was one of three scientists to receive the 1945 Nobel Prize, in physiology and medicine. The other scientists were Howard Florey and Ernst Chain.
Antibiotic: A chemical substance that is used in the treatment of bacterial infectious diseases and has the ability to either kill or inhibit the growth of having the capacity in dilute solutions to either kill or inhibit the growth of certain harmful microorganisms.
Chain, Ernst: One of the main scientists who worked with Florey in the research with penicillin, and one of the three scientist to share the Nobel Prize, in 1945, for their work on penicillin, in physiology and medicine. The other two scientists were Howard Florey and Alexander Fleming.
Florey, Howard: In1938, directed his efforts to doing research with penicillin, at Oxford. His research program eventually was the one that led to a method in the purification and mass production of penicillin. This led to a Knighthood, in 1943, and the Nobel Prize, in 1945, in physiology and medicine. The later was shared with Ernst Chain and Alexander Fleming.
Germ Theory of Disease: Concept put forth by Pasteur that each disease is caused by a specific type of microorganisms.
Magic bullet: A theoretical substance that could kill disease, causing organisms, without harming the infected organism.
Paine, Cecil: The first scientist to demonstrate the potential usefulness of penicillin, in human patients. Paine used a crude extracts of penicillin from a culture of Penicillium notatum, and was able to save a miners injured eye that had become badly infected and would ordinarily have been removed. Also, treated a case of hereditary gonorrhea that prevented blindness in the child. Normally, children with such diseases would have become blind. Although it was disputed by Florey, Paine told Florey of his success with using penicillin on human patients, which probably stimulated his interest in working with penicillin.
Penicillin: First antibiotic isolated and used in treatment of bacterial diseases and infections.
Penicillium chrysogeum: The species of fungus, in a much, mutated form, which is presently used in producing penicillin, commercially.
Penicillium notatum: The species of fungus in which Alexander Fleming first discovered penicillin and its antibacterial properties.
Septicemia: Also called "blood poisoning", it is caused by virulent microorganisms that have invaded the bloodstream, usually through a local infection.
Sulfa Drugs: A class of synthetic chemical substances developed during the mid 1930s for treatment of certain of bacterial infections.
General Information:
Chemical Formula: C16H18N2O5S
Percent Composition by mass; 57.4% C, 5.43% H, 8.38% N, 19.14% O, 9.59% S.
Percent Composition by number: 38.1% C, 42.9% H, 4.8% N, 11.9% O 2.3% S
Melting and Boiling point: Melting Point: 97 degrees C. Because of penicillin's use as a drug, not a
whole lot of information is available about some of its specific chemical properties and here the boiling
point is one of those things. Many resources were scoured to try and find this piece of info i.e.: the
Merck Index, or the Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, but to no avail.
Density/molar mass: Density= 1.41 g/ml, molar mass= 356.37g
Natural Abundance: The natural abundance of penicillin is not know exactly. This is because it is derived
from a mold called penicillium notatum of the division mycota. It is usually found on old food,
leather and Fabrics. Penicillium is not used just for the production of penicillin but also in organic acids
and chesses. It because of its origins that the natural abundance cannot be calculated accurately.
Chemical Properties: There has not been a hole whole lot of research on the chemical properties of
penicillin, besides the research on its uses as an antibiotic. Because of its use in medicine information
about how it reacts to other substances is virtually nil. I searched through almost all the books on
chemistry that were available to me and none of them stated how penicillin reacts.
Production: In the beginning the process of producing penicillin was somewhat inefficient. Early on it was
grown in a number of bottles in a quiescent medium that only produced about .001 grams of penicillin
per liter. As said before this was not very useful if the scientists intended to use it on patients. Of course
after penicillin was made it also had to be purified, that also was a tedious process. Today, however, the
situation has improved by leaps and bounds. The cultures are now submerged in a nutrient medium
that has a nitrogen source, usually corn steep liquor or soy meal; a source of carbon, usually glucose; and
special substances called buffers that keep the pH at around 6.5. Another important ingredient is air. The
air is first purified and then allowed to enter the tank. It takes 40 hours for the fermentation process to
come to an end but it is extended to 160 hours by adding more medium thus increasing the productivity
of each batch. This process is called fed-batch and is used by many producers. Once a batch is finished it
is then purified. To do this the cell mass is taken out via filtration, once this is completed the penicillin is
ready for harvest.
General Description: There are two different categories of penicillin. One is called biosynthetic
penicillin. Biosynthetic penicillin is natural penicillin that is harvested from the mold itself through
fermentation. The second form of penicillin is known as semisynthetic. Semisynthetic penicillin is a type
in which the structure of the amniopenicillianic acid has been changed in some way. Because it is
possible to change penicillin in many ways different kinds of penicillin can be produced to perform
different tasks. The only naturally created form of penicillin that is used today is benzyl penicillin, or
penicillin G. Its main flaw is that it tends to break down in acid very easily, so because of this it must be
injected by intramuscular injection. By giving it to the patient this way its abilities are somewhat reduced
but not nearly as much as they would be if it had to have gone through the stomach. Most types of
penicillin must be injected in the same way but certain types of semisynthetics can be taken orally. The
way penicillin and all other antibiotics work is by stopping bacterial enzymes that control cell-wall
creation and causing other enzymes that break apart the bacterium's defenses, to activate. Certain strains
of bacteria have developed an immunity against penicillin by either creating a special enzyme called
penicillinases that cause disruptions in the structure of the penicillin, or they simply do not have cell
wall receptors that are susceptible to penicillin. Common side affects to penicillin include: allergic
reactions, or hypersensitivity. Common bacteria that are susceptible to penicillin are: those that cause
throat infections, i.e.. strep, and other dangerous illnesses like: pneumonia, spinal meningitis, gas
gangrene, diphtheria, syphilis, and gonorrhea.
History and Discovery of Penicillin: Not many people know this but Flemming discovered two important
antibiotic substances: one of course was penicillin, but the other was lysozyme. Flemming first came upon
lysozyme's abilities when the mucus from his own nose inadvertently dropped onto a petri dish that had
bacteria growing in it. He did not notice this at first but a few days later he saw that the bacteria that had
been growing there was killed. One of Flemming's problems was that he often failed to get the word out
about his discoveries and because of this his new discovery was pretty much overlooked. Thanks to this
initial discovery he was egged on to continue his research of antibiotic substances. The way he discovered
penicillin in September of 1928 was much like the way he did lysozyme, by accident. He had a number of
petri dishes set out in his lab and noticed that one of them had a spot of mold growing which did not have
any of the bacteria. What most people do not know about Flemming is that he had a tendency to overlook
and understate the usefulness of discoveries. Flemming thought that penicillin could only be used as an
antiseptic for minor infections, not for the major infections it was later discovered to be useful in the
treatment of major infections. If Flemming had conducted more extensive tests with penicillin he would
have noticed this. Had Flemming conducted tests the true abilities of penicillin would have been known
about 38 years in advance. The experiments that he did conduct showed that only the different penicillium
molds could produce the "mold juice." Flemming's first publication about penicillin was in the British
Journal of Experimental Pathology in 1929. In it he stated that it might be useful in the treatment of
infections. The full capabilities of penicillin were not officially noticed until 1940 by the two British
scientists Baron Florey and Ernst Boris Chain the two men that he shared the Nobel Prize with. Because
penicillin had no real immediate consequences on his career Flemming stopped his work with penicillin
and moved onto sulfa drugs. In 1940 Chain and Florey conducted extensive clinical trials on penicillin
after which Flemming and his wonder drug gained much celebrity not only in the scientific world but also
in the world of the laymen. Penicillin really gained its fame during World War 11 where there was much
need for a safe antibiotic to treat common war infections like gangrene which reeked havoc during
World War I.
The above picture represents a pair of penicillin molecules. The Chemical Structure of Penicillin G is represented below.
Penicillin G with R-group = Phenyl-CH2- The # equals a double-bond
O S CH3
# / \ /
Phenyl-CH2-C-NH-CH---CH C--CH3
| | |
-----> | | |
Beta-lactam ring ___ / C----N---CH--C#O
# |
O OH
R-group = Phenyl-CH2- Penicillin G
R-group = Phenyl-(O-CH3)2 Methicillin
R-group = Phenyl-CH2- Ampicillin
|
NH2
After learning more about penicillin I am convinced that it is a very beneficial drug. Before its discovery many people where dying from easily curable things simply because they had nothing to treat their infections. Fleming's and Florey's discovery of Penicillin save such a countless number of lives that nothing could outway it. Some people tend to disagree and think that the antibiotic is overused and does not deserve the credit it has received. But, when you think about it would some of us even be here today if it wasn't for the finding of this antibiotic? There were so many injured men during World War 2 that could've easily died from infections if it hadn't been for Penicillin. Their spared lives went on to become our fathers and grandfathers. So, not only did Penicillin save the lives of people involved in the war, but it went on to save the majority of us living today.
Penicillin Allergies
How should this medicine be used?
Penicillin V potassium comes as a tablet and liquid to take by mouth. It is usually taken every 6 hours (four times a day) or every 8 hours (three times a day). Follow the directions on your prescription label carefully, and ask your doctor or pharmacist to explain any part you do not understand. Take penicillin V potassium exactly as directed. Do not take more or less of it or take it more often than prescribed by your doctor.
Shake the liquid well before each use to mix the medication evenly.
The tablets should be swallowed whole and taken with a full glass of water.
Continue to take penicillin V potassium even if you feel well. Do not stop taking penicillin V potassium without talking to your doctor.
Penicillin is the first naturally occuring antibiotic discovered and the first to be used therapeutically. This means that it is a substance that can kill or inhibit the growth of certain types of bacteria. It is generally associated with treating infections such as dipththeria, meningitis,pneumonia, and more common ones such as strep throat. It can be taken oraly as a liguid or pill, or you can take it through a type of shot. It is a favorite drug for doctors to prescribe.
Aspirin: The Bayer Facts
Aspirin is a member of a family of chemicals called salicylates (see below for chemistry and structure). These chemicals have been known to people interested in medicine for centuries.
One of the first and most influential physicians, Hippocrates, wrote about a bitter powder extracted from willow bark that could ease aches and pains and reduce fevers as long ago as the fifth century B.C. In the 1700s, the scientist Reverend Edmund Stone wrote about the success of the bark and the willow in the cure of the "agues," or fevers with aches. With a bit of chemical detective work, scientists found out that the part of willow bark that was (1) bitter and (2) good for fever and pain is a chemical known as salicin.
This chemical can be converted (changed) by the body after it is eaten to another chemical, salicylic acid. It was a pharmacist known as Leroux who showed in 1829 that salicin is this active willow ingredient, and for many years it, salicylic acid (made from salicin for the first time by Italian chemist Piria), and close relatives were used at high doses to treat pain and swelling in diseases like arthritis and to treat fever in illnesses like influenza (flu).
The problem with these chemicals was that they upset the user's stomach fairly badly. In fact, some people had bleeding in their digestive tracts from the high doses of these chemicals needed to control pain and swelling. One of these people was a German man named Hoffmann. His arthritis was pretty bad, but he just couldn't "stomach" his salicylic acid. Enter this man's son, German chemist Felix Hoffmann, who worked for a chemical company known as Friedrich Bayer & Co. Felix wanted to find a chemical that wouldn't be so hard on his dad's stomach lining; reasoning that salicylic acid may be irritating because it is an acid, he put the compound through a couple of chemical reactions that covered up one of the acidic parts with an acetyl group, converting it to acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). He found that ASA not only could reduce fever and relieve pain and swelling, but he believed it was better for the stomach and worked even better than salicylic acid.
Unfortunately, Hoffmann had to wait for fame. He finished his initial studies in 1897, and his employers didn't pay much attention to it because it was new and they were cautious -- they didn't think it had been tested enough. By 1899, though, one of Bayer's top chemists, a scientist named Dreser, had finished demonstrating the usefulness of the potent new medicine and even gave it a new name: aspirin. It is believed that the name comes from a plant relative of a rose that makes salicylic acid (several plants make this compound, not just the willow). The Bayer company could then support the tested medicine; they spread the word and marketed the new pill widely.
Over the next hundred years, this medicine would fall in and out of favor, at least two new families of medicines would be derived from it, and innumerable research articles would be published about aspirin. Thousands have been published in the past five years alone! One of the most important pieces of research about aspirin came in the early 1970s, when a British scientist named John Vane and his colleagues showed how aspirin works (see the following sections). His work was so important that he and his colleagues were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1982. Dr. Vane was even made a British knight for his work!
The History of Aspirin
Aspirin is a trade name for acetylsalicylic acid, a common analgesic. The earliest known uses of the drug can be traced back to the Greek physician Hippocrates in the fifth century B.C. He used powder extracted from the bark of willows to treat pain and reduce fever.
Salicin, the parent of the salicylate drug family, was successfully isolated in 1829 from willow bark. Sodium salicylate, a predecessor to aspirin, was developed along with salicylic acid in 1875 as a pain reliever.
Sodium salicylate was not often popular though, as it has a habit of irritating the stomach. However, in 1897, a man named Felix Hoffman changed the face of medicine forever. Hoffman was a German chemist working for Bayer. He had been using the common pain reliever of the time, sodium salicylate, to treat his father's arthritis.
The sodium salicylate caused his father the same stomach trouble it caused other people, so Felix decided to try and concoct a less acidic formula. His work led to the synthesization of acetylsalicylic acid, or ASA. This soon became the pain killer of choice for physicians around the globe.
Scientists never really understood the inner workings of the drug however. It wasn't until the 1970's, when British pharmacologist John Vane, Ph.D. began work on aspirin that people began to understand how aspirin really works. Vane and his colleagues found that aspirin inhibited the release of a hormone like substance called prostaglandin. This chemical regulates certain body functions, such as blood vessel elasticity and changing the functions of blood platelets. Thus can aspirin affect blood clotting and ease inflammation
Aspirin is an analgesic, meaning a drug that alleviates pain without affecting consciousness. It is most commonly used for headaches, muscle pain, arthritis, and fever reduction. Only recently, following the work of John Vane Ph.D., has aspirin been recognized as a cardiological drug.
It is commonly thought that aspirin hinders prostaglandin production and thus reduces inflammation and pain. Prostaglandin affect the flow of blood platelets, which are key in blood clotting. If plaque tears inside a coronary artery, clotting begins at the site. This can cause cardiac arrest or a myocardial infarction. Today doctors can prescribe aspirin to patients with a history of heart disease, and dramatically reduce that person's risk of a second event.
As far as it's use as an analgesic, aspirin has many alternatives. Ibuprofen is one of the most common, and is marketed under such names as Motrin IB and Advil. Ibuprofen is non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) just as aspirin is. It has many of the same applications as aspirin. Acetaminophen is just as common as aspirin or ibuprofen, and is marketed most commonly as Tylenol. Acetaminophen does not carry the same side effects as aspirin or ibuprofen, so is generally safer for a wider percentage of the population.
Aspirin has many side effects that acetaminophen and other pain relievers do not. It can induce gastro-intestinal discomfort if taken in large enough doses. In children and adolescents aspirin can cause Reye's syndrome if taken while the child is infected with a virus like chicken pox or influenza.
There are also more specialized drugs for headaches and arthritis, including ketoprofen (Orudis KT) and naproxen sodium (Aleve).
In the future aspirin may become a common place drug in the fight against cardiovascular disease. It's value as preventive medicine for healthy people is already gaining ground in the U.S. If we keep finding new uses for aspirin, it might just stay around for another hundred years.