The Ways in Which Organisms Use ATP
The Ways in Which Organisms Use ATP ATP, the standard abbreviation of Adenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleotide used in cells as a coenzyme, and can be best summarised as the standard energy currency universal to all organisms, and as such is utilised in metabolic (and other) processes throughout the cells of organisms, and is highly adapted to its function therein due to its high instability in aqueous solutions (eg tissue fluid) due to its easily hydrolysable phosphoannhydride bonds which when broken release a proportionally huge amount of energy. ATP is required during the contraction of skeletal muscle. ADP is released by the myosin head, this allows it to change shape thereby pulling the actin filament across itself. In order to detach the myosin molecule (for it to bind to a myosin binding site further along the actin) ATP binds to the myosin head, where it is hydrolysed to release ADP (which remains on the head) and inorganic phosphate. The energy released allows the myosin head to resume its normal position prior to the release of its ADP molecule, ready to bind further along the actin filament. Furthermore, ATP is utilised elsewhere within the same process, as it is used by carrier proteins on the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum as a source of energy for the active transport of Ca2+ ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. It is when these
Studying the Effect of Salt on Cress Germination
PLANNING Initial Method . Prepare 8 sterile Petri dishes with a perfectly fitting circle of cotton wool and filter paper, this will sit on top of the wool 2. A control dish must also be set up using the same steps as above 3. Weigh out 8 different salt measures, at 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5 and 1.75 4. Measure out 8, 50ml beakers of distilled water 5. Add the one measure of salt into a beaker (1 beaker for each weight) and stir until the salt is dissolved and cannot be seen 6. Add one drop of Plant nutrient growth (e.g. baby bio) to each solution 7. Add each solution into individual Petri dishes which were made up earlier on, make sure the cotton wool and filter paper are allowed a small amount of time to absorb as much water as possible before the next step 8. Add 10 Cress seeds to each of the 8 solutions and place the lid on the dish 9. Place the dishes in are area which is well lit by natural light 0. Check the dishes each day for a week and top up each dish with the same solution if it is becoming dry, add the same amount to each dish (record what you add) 1. Count and record the percentage I chose to carry out my method in this fashion as it gave me the best way to see which salt concentration had the biggest effect. I chose 8 solutions as it gives me a good range to monitor the salinity effects. The solutions are based on findings in earlier research
descrive the biological importance of water
Making up between 70 and 95% of the mass of a cell, and covering over three quarters of the planets surface, water is one of the most important compounds on this planet. A single water molecule is made up of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms. Covalent bonds are formed by sharing electrons between the outer shells of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms. However, what makes water so unique is the fact that it remains a liquid at room temperature. Many similar sized molecules (ammonia has a molecular mass equal to that of water-18) remain in their gaseous form at this temperature. The reasons for this unique thermal property are hydrogen bonds. The nucleus of an oxygen atom is larger and therefore contains many more protons that that of a hydrogen atom. Therefore, the electrons shared in the covalent bond between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms have a greater affinity for the oxygen atom than either hydrogen atom. This pulls the electrons closer to the oxygen atom and away from the hydrogen atoms resulting in the oxygen atom having a slightly negative charge and the hydrogen atoms developing slightly positive charges. These slight charges mean that when water molecules are close together, positively charged hydrogen atoms are attracted to the negatively charged oxygen atoms of a different water molecule. These attractions are known as hydrogen bonds and
Find the relationship between amount of fat and amount of energy produced in different foods.
July 2001 Biology Coursework Year 10 Aim Find the relationship between amount of fat and amount of energy produced in different foods. Planning I am going to ignite different foods and see how much heat energy they give out. The food that causes the biggest amount of change in temperature will have the most amount of energy. However, calculations have to be carried out to create an average energy output per gram. Variables Independent Variables: This will change from food to food, thus giving me a range of different results. In this experiment it will be type of food. Dependant Variable: This is the amount of Energy per gram which can be calculated Controlled Variables: These are the things that will keep the same, in order to sustain a fair test. These are; * Apparatus * Type of boiling tube * Distance of boiling tube from Bunsen burner * Distance of food from boiling tube * Amount of time taken to move ignited food to boiling tube Fair Test It is essential that I keep it a fair test in order to sustain accurate results for comparison at the end. To ensure a fair test, I must keep the controlled variables for every test I do. The apparatus must all be kept the same because there may be some minor differences in insulation properties, or measure of accuracy between them. If this were to happen, it would prevent me from sustaining accurate results. The same
Effect of nitrate concentration on the growth of Duckweeds
Introduction & Method At the beginning of the experiment, I put on a lab coat to protect myself from any danger that may occur. I made sure that all my equipments were clean and dry before I started, and I also measured the temperature of the room to confirm it was around room temperature. I then made sure that the ice cube tray was clean, I put a little label on one end of the tray to indicate my starting point row of the ice cube tray. I then made a little note to myself that the label indicated the row which will contain the 0.0% x 10-3 concentration of nitrate in the solution, and the rows onwards will contain the concentration of nitrogen in solution in ascending orders which I will use (0.0, 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6 and 2.4 % x 10-3). I Whilst pouring the solutions into a glass beaker I put on goggles and gloves to protect my eyes and hands from any contacts with the ammonium nitrate solution, as any contact can lead to irritation of the skin and eye. I poured 80-90cm3 of the 1st concentration which contained 0.0% x 10-3 of nitrate into a 100cm3 glass beaker. Next I used a clean syringe to measure out 25cm3 of the solution into the 1st well (near my label). The tray had 3 wells in a row and there were 6 rows, I repeatedly added 25 cm3 of the same ammonium nitrate solution into the remaining two wells of that row, so that I will obtain a result of three replicates with each
An investigation into the effect of different sugars on respiration in yeast.
An investigation into the effect of different sugars on respiration in yeast. I am going to carry out an experiment, measuring the effect of different sugars on the respiration in yeast. In order to make a justified prediction I have researched different aspects of scientific knowledge, including respiration, yeast, sugar structure, enzymes and the collision theory. Glycolysis http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/301notes1.htm Glycolysis is the splitting of a monosaccharide into two molecules of pyruvate. It takes part in the cytoplasm of a cell. Glycolysis begins with a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms, and ends with two molecules of pyruvate, each with three carbon atoms. For the first steps of glycolysis, energy from ATP is needed. However, energy is released in later steps to generate ATP. For every molecule of glucose, a net gain of two molecules of ATP is produced. The first stage of glycolysis is called phosphorylation, and results in hexose bisphosphate. This is shown in green on the above diagram. Hexose bisphosphate then breaks down into two molecules of triose phosphate. Hydrogen is removed from the triose phosphate and transferred to NAD to produce reduced NAD. These hydrogen's can then be used in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP. The end products of glycolysis are pyruvates, which still contains a lot of chemical potential energy. There are two
The Effectiveness of Different Solutions to Prevent or Treat Malaria
Issue Report: The Effectiveness of Different Solutions to Prevent or Treat Malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease commonly known in tropical and subtropical regions such as Sub Saharan, Africa, Asia and America. It is a potentially fatal blood disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. There are four types of plasmodium parasite that can infect humans and these are: Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium malariaecan. Malaria parasites are transmitted successively infecting two types of hosts: Female Anopheles mosquitos and humans. This is how the Malaria Life Cycle works: Bitten by a mosquito, during feeding, malaria parasites (sporozoites) leave the mosquito salivary gland and enter the human bloodstream. Then the malaria parasites enter the liver, infect the liver cells (hepatocytes) where they multiply into merozoites parasites. The liver cells eventually rupture and release more parasites in the blood. The parasites invade the red blood cells where they continue to multiply and develop to trophozoites and schizonts and rupture the cells. The blood stages cause the clinical symptoms of malaria. Some parasites enter the red blood cells and develop into male and female reproductive cells (termed gametocytes). The gametocytes are transferred to another mosquito when it feeds on the human. Then the
effect of temperature on the rate of respiration in yeast
Effect of temperature on the rate of respiration in yeast Aim: My aim is to investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of respiration in yeast by using a universal indicator. Background theory: Enzyme: Enzymes are organic catalysts that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction without being permanently altered in the process. Enzyme Characteristics * Lower the energy of activation * Form reversible complex with substrate. * Not consumed in the reaction therefore they are effect in small amounts * Very specific - (Induced fit hypothesis) react with only a single substrate. * Many need cofactors, such as certain vitamins, to be activated. * 2000+ enzymes per cell, different cells have different enzymes. * Enzymes are produced by genes. * Genetic disorders are the result of faulty enzymes. * Operate best in optimum conditions of pH, temperature, etc. * Are controlled by feedback mechanisms. Enzyme mechanism: Key and theory: The substrates (reactants) are attracted to the enzyme molecule. They join forming an enzyme-substrate complex. The reaction occurs on an area of the enzyme molecule known as the active site producing new substrates(s) or products. Induced fit hypothesis: The attraction of the substrate and enzyme form an enzyme-substrate complex. It was originally referred to as the Lock and Key Enzyme Theory. The current theory
Experiment examining the effect of mineral deficiencies on plant growth.
Core Practical Write Up Investigate the effect of plant mineral deficiencies Planning Dependant variable: we are going to be observing the changes in root length, plant body length, number of living leaves and colours of leaves. Independent variable: we will be varying the mineral deficiency in the agar jellies. There will be five ager jelly dishes. There will be one dish containing all nutrients; one dish lacking magnesium; one dish lacking nitrogen; one dish lacking calcium; and one without any of those nutrients. Controlled variables: We are going to be controlling the type of plant growing in the agar jelly. We are using Mexican hat plantlets for our experiment. The time between each measurement is going to be controlled, when one plant is observed all the other plants will also be observed so plants have equal amounts of time to grow. Hypothesis: From what I have learnt in class when a plant lacks nitrogen it should be unable to grow larger because amino acids production will be reduced. A plant lacking magnesium would be unable to produce chlorophyll therefore the leaves would become yellow coloured and not so green. The plant lacking calcium would have a stunted growth due to the role of calcium ions in the structure of the cell walls and membrane permeability. I expect the plant lacking all nutrients to have all three of these properties and possibly just die
Biology coursework investigation: Comparing the length of ivy leaves (Hedera helix) in areas of greater illumination and shade
Biology coursework investigation: "Comparing the length of ivy leaves (Hedera helix) in areas of greater illumination and shade" Abstract The aim of this study was to compare the length of leaves of ivy plants (Hedera helix) climbing on two Hornbeam trees (Carpinus betulus) in two different light intensities. The hypothesis was that the lengths of Hedera helix exposed to a higher light intensity ("sun leaves") would be shorter than Hedera helix exposed to a lower intensity of light ("shade leaves"). The light intensity was measured using a light meter and the lengths of the midrib vein of 30 leaves were measured from each of the two trees. The method describes how leaves were chosen to ensure that they were approximately the same age. The results were analysed using a students t statistical test and it was concluded that there was a significant difference between the lengths of the two groups of leaves. The main reason for this was concluded to be the structural differences in the Hedera helix in the sun and shade. Background information on Hedera helix Previous investigations have shown that there are structural differences between the leaves of ivy in areas of high light intensity and areas of low light intensity. Shade leaves of ivy are typically thinner than sun leaves and also have a larger area in comparison. This is due to them having a thinner cuticle and one layer
