Following the Progress of an Enzyme Controlled Reaction
Following the Progress of an Enzyme Controlled Reaction Plan Enzymes are a widely used source of biological catalyst; they are used in widely in industry as in the biological aspects. Enzymes are biological catalyst; this means that they will speed up a reaction with out becoming used up. The enzymes for this by not actually interfering with the reaction its self but basically align the two substrates on the active site of the enzyme. Amylases are widely spread enzymes that hydrolyse starch to maltose. They are often found in two forms, a-amylase, which degrades starch molecules into, fragments 10 glucose residues long and b-amylase, which breaks down these into maltose, made up of two glucose molecules. Both work by hydrolysis adding one molecule of water across glycosidic link. Hypothesis My hypothesis is that as the time of the enzyme reaction goes on the amount of substrate reacted by time goes in a proportional relationship. In theory time Vs substrate concentration should have a proportional relationship as the relative enzymes will all have plenty of the substrate molecules to align with, therefore creating a constant time for the reaction. The substrate being used is starch, starch is widely found inn various substances. It is greatly found in bread, the starch is a very useful nutrient for human life forms as it is the source for sugars, which produce energy for
An investigation to determine how increasing the concentration of inhibitor Copper Sulpahte will affect the amount of juice pr
An investigation to determine how increasing the concentration of inhibitor Copper Sulpahte will affect the amount of juice produced by pectinase from a given mass of apple Hypothesis: I think that increasing the concentration of the inhibitor copper sulphate will decrease the ammount of juice produced by the enzyme pectinase. I expect this to happen because as copper sulphate is an inhibitor (non-competitive one), it will reduce the break down of pectin found in the middle lamellae between the cell walls in the apple pulp. Enzyme inhibitors are molecules that interact in some way with the enzyme to prevent it from working in the normal manner. In this case, it attaches to a part of the enzyme stucture, other than the active site. When this happens, the shape of the whole enzyme may change, altering the shape of the active site. This prevents enzyme substrate complexes formation, which means the enzyme can no longer function as it should. Therefore if i increase the concentration of the inhibitor it is more likely that the inhibitor will attach to an enzyme structure, meaning that a smaller ammount of enzymes are hydrolysing the same amount of pectin molecules, making less juice each time. Once the non-competitive inhibitor binds to the enzyme, it changes the shape of the active site, making the substrate unable to fit in its active site and therefore working properly.
The effect of drugs on the nervous system
The effect of drugs on the nervous system A drug is defined as a substance that, when absorbed into the body, alters a normal bodily function. Some are able to do this, as they are capable of producing an array of different effects on the nervous system. The reason why affecting the nervous system of an organism is potentially so significant is due to the nature of it. The fact the nervous system directs the functions of all the tissues of the body demonstrates its considerable role within the body. It can therefore be assumed that taking substances which affect how it works may lead to a distortion in the way your body is run, producing unsafe side effects. The term nervous system is actually used to describe two divisions. The central nervous system (CNS) is the part which contains the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) however, consists of all the sensory neurones used to detect stimuli. The PNS receives thousands of sensory inputs and transmits them to the brain via the spinal cord. The brain will then process this information, discarding around 99% of it as unimportant. After this sensory information has been processed, areas of the nervous system generate nerve impulses to organs or tissue and form a suitable response. As influences from chemicals are able to affect how the nervous system functions, it can be assumed that chemicals such as
Types of diffusion
Types of Diffusion and Their uses Diffusion is the phenomenon of random motion causing a system to decay towards uniform conditions. Diffusion causes particles to disperse throughout the area it is released in, it can be the diffusion of heat, momentum or concentration. Diffusion usually takes place when there are two mediums of different concentations, in which case diffusion will occur and the two mediums will become isotonic - reaching a state of equilibrium. Osmosis is the movement of water across a partially permeable membrane up a concentration gradient which separates the two solutions at different concentrations. In two volumes of water at different concentrations the solutions will each attempt to pass through the semi-permeable membrane but the solution with a lower concentration will only allow water to pass through as the solute molecules are to big to get through. Osmosis will continue to happen until the 2 solutions reach equilibrium and the flow of water molecules from one side equals the flow of water molecules from the other side through the partially permeable membrane, this is also called isotonic. Plants use osmosis to take up water into their roots because they have a large surface area and the water coming through the permeable membrane generates the pressure needed to send the water up the plant to the vital areas. Simple diffusion is a process of
Affect Of Varying Salt Concentration on Red Blood Cell Haemolysis
COURSEWORK INVESTIGATION Affect Of Varying Salt Concentration on Red Blood Cell Haemolysis Tahir Aziz CONTENTS > Plan > Outline method > Key variables > Risk assessment > Preliminary results > Method > Results of control experiments > Results > Conclusions > Main trends and patterns > Explanation of results > Experimental limitations Affect Of Varying Salt Concentration on Red Blood Cell Haemolysis Abstract The average adult has about five litres of blood living inside of their body, coursing through their vessels, delivering essential elements, and removing harmful wastes. Without blood, the human body would stop working. Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to the lungs. Blood is the fluid of growth, transporting nourishment from digestion and hormones from glands throughout the body. Blood is the fluid of health, transporting disease fighting substances to the tissue and waste to the kidneys. Because it contains living cells, blood is alive. Red blood cells and white blood cells are responsible for nourishing and cleansing the body. Since the cells are alive, they too need nourishment. Vitamins and Minerals keep the blood healthy. The blood cells have a definite life cycle, just as all living organisms do. Approximately 55 percent of blood is plasma, a straw-collared clear
Liver and Hydrogen Peroxide experiment
Liver and Hydrogen Peroxide experiment Aim: To see how different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide affects the enzyme activity and rate of reaction. Hypothesis: I believe that when the concentration of the substrate (hydrogen peroxide) increases this will cause the rate of reaction to increase. I believe this because enzyme activity and substrate concentration affect the rate of reaction. As the concentration of enzymes increase so does the number of active sites. If there is excess substrates present. This will then cause the rate of reaction to increase in the proportion of excess substrate molecules and enzymes. The rate of reaction depends on the rate of formation of enzyme - substrate complexes. As the substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction will increase until all enzyme molecules are being used up. After this point it doesn't matter how much more substrate you add the rate of reaction will not increase anymore as the enzymes are working as fast as they can to break down the substrate. The rate reaches maximum velocity and remains constant. Basically with the highest concentration the enzymes will be able to collide with more substrate molecules. Here are 2 graphs to show the increase of rate of reaction as enzyme and substrate concentration increase. For the purpose of this experiment the enzyme concentration will be kept constant and the
The Ways in Which Organisms Use ATP
The Ways in Which Organisms Use ATP ATP, the standard abbreviation of Adenosine-5'-triphosphate is a multifunctional nucleotide used in cells as a coenzyme, and can be best summarised as the standard energy currency universal to all organisms, and as such is utilised in metabolic (and other) processes throughout the cells of organisms, and is highly adapted to its function therein due to its high instability in aqueous solutions (eg tissue fluid) due to its easily hydrolysable phosphoannhydride bonds which when broken release a proportionally huge amount of energy. ATP is required during the contraction of skeletal muscle. ADP is released by the myosin head, this allows it to change shape thereby pulling the actin filament across itself. In order to detach the myosin molecule (for it to bind to a myosin binding site further along the actin) ATP binds to the myosin head, where it is hydrolysed to release ADP (which remains on the head) and inorganic phosphate. The energy released allows the myosin head to resume its normal position prior to the release of its ADP molecule, ready to bind further along the actin filament. Furthermore, ATP is utilised elsewhere within the same process, as it is used by carrier proteins on the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum as a source of energy for the active transport of Ca2+ ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. It is when these
Enzymes in agriculture.
Enzymes in Industry and Medicine by David Harder Enzymes in agriculture The only major agricultural area to utilise enzymes is the feeding of monogastric animals. There are two applications, which currently utilise enzymes. Biological silage inoculants frequently contain enzymes in addition to lactic acid bacteria. The enzymes in such products partially breakdown some of the cell wall components of the plant material to be ensiled into soluble sugars. These liberated sugars are then metabolised by the natural or applied lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacilli or Pediococci into lactic acid, which reduces the pH and so ensiles the crop. Some enzyme preparations have been reported to improve the utilisation of feeds for ruminant animals. The use of enzymes in arable agriculture especially in the processing of some major crops and in waste disposal systems is areas, which has not been fully investigated. Enzymes in baking Bread baking is one of the most common food processing techniques throughout the world although the bread products of different countries vary in their finished form. The basic component of all bread is wheat flour to which is added water, salt and yeast. Other ingredients are sometimes added such as sugar, fats and flavouring components. The main components of wheat flour are starch, protein and fibre. The wheat flour has naturally occurring enzymes
Cell Biology and Genetics
Unit1 - Cell Biology & Genetics By Kendra Pinder The Nucleus (Fig 1) is the largest organelle in a single cell. As you can clearly see from the cell in fig 3, under an electron microscope this cell is spherical in shape and the darker stained area is the Nucleolus. The nucleus quite literally is the control centre of each cell and initiates the directives for the other organelles within the cell. As well as initiating directives it also controls the growth and duplication of the other organelles within the cell. If a cell was seen as a company an organisation the nucleus would be comparable to a manager/director of that company. The Cell has one or more nucleoli and it is here that ribosome's are manufactured for protein synthesis, providing ATP etc for the cell. This is made possible as the Nucleolus contains all the information that the cell will need to function. The nucleus itself is surrounded by a thin membrane that protects it from other parts of the cell. Though this membrane does surround the nucleolus it is a double semi permeable membrane (also known as the nuclear envelope) and within the membrane layer's there are nuclear pores. These pores allow the exchange between the nucleus and the cytoplasm of molecules for example the aforementioned ribosomes. Inside the membrane where the nucleolus resides you will also find a smaller organelle, a nucleoli which is
Should stem cell research be allowed?
HUMAN AWARENESS ESSAY Stem Cells Should stem cell research be allowed? Stem cell research has been a major biological breakthrough in recent years. It has great potential to help people and ease suffering. But there is also a moral question raised about stem cell research, and that comes from the source of stem cells. Ever since Stem Cell research started, there has been much debate over whether or not it should be allowed. Some people are completely against stem cell research because the stem cells are often taken from aborted pregnancies, they consider it murder. While others want stem cell research to continue because it can help ease people's suffering and cure disease. There are already certain restrictions (in many countries) on much of the research and it is unclear if these restrictions will be lifted. Stem cells have the ability to divide rapidly. These cells are unspecialized or 'blank' cells meaning they have no purpose as of yet, under the right conditions they can become cells with special functions like heart or liver cells. This means stem cells could repair diseased or damaged organs. So for example if part of a mouse's spine was removed stem cells could be put in its place and under the right conditions form the missing part of the spine. The stem cells would become spine cells. Stem cells can be extracted from adults and umbilical cords after a child is
