The effects of smoking on the respiratory system.
The effects of smoking on the respiratory system. Medical evidence has proven that smoking is the main cause of many respiratory diseases. The following information will explain how the respiratory system works and how smoking could easily affect the different sectors. A key diagram has been included in the appendix, showing the main organs of the respiratory system. Figure 3. The nose and pharynx are the upper portions of the airway into the lungs. Air enters the airways by travelling through the nasal cavity. The nasal area is lined with a fine hair like filaments called cilia. Covering the cilia is a coating of mucus. This is a sticky substance, produced by the goblet cells to traps any dust particles and bacteria entering the nasal area. The cilia are responsible for clearing mucus that has trapped the dust particles. They are constantly beating back and forth with a wave-like motion, sweeping the bacteria and mucus towards the pharynx. Here it will by disposed off into the digestive system. The cilia are very sensitive structures. Cigarette smoke can damage the cilia and even destroy them altogether. Tar from the cigarette paralyses their movement stopping them from doing their job. In an attempt to clear itself of the harmful tar, the nose secretes more mucus than normal. If the cilia are not sweeping the bacteria away, it will find a place to breed, causing infection.
Fermentation Investigation
Fermentation Investigation Planning As a culture of yeast is merged with solution of sugar, a reaction called fermentation occurs. As products, ethanol and carbon dioxide are produced, in form of liquid and gas respectively. The reaction follows this equation: Glucose solution + Yeast Carbon dioxide + Ethanol + (Energy) And as one of the products is in the form of gas, the volume of the product can be measured to demonstrate the difference of the reaction when certain factors are changed. In the other words, the rate of reaction can be illustrated by doing appropriate calculation involving the volume of gas produced. Hypotheses There are several factors that can affect the rate of fermentation. There are: * Concentration of sugar solution; * Type of sugar; * Temperature of the environment; * Age of the yeast culture; and * Size of the yeast culture. The factor chosen is the concentration of sugar solution, so the others factors are to be kept constant as control factors in order to make this investigation fair. Here are the control conditions: * Sugar used is glucose, because it is a mono saccharine, easy to decompose; * Temperature of the environment is 30??C, so that there is enough energy and the enzymes do not denature; * The yeast is to come from the same source, so they are at the same age. However, the size of the yeast culture is the factor that cannot
Investigate the effect of temperature on the activity of an immobilised enzyme.
Investigate the effect of temperature on the activity of an immobilised enzyme. Introduction B-galactosidase (lactase) catalyses the hydrolysis of Lactose to glucose and galactose. Milk, or whey derived from it, may be treated using either free of immobilised enzyme in a batch reactor. Alternatively, the substrate may be passed continuously through a column containing immobilised enzyme. The product of this treatment is lactose reduced milk. Although beta-galactosidase is widespread among bacteria, it is not universal, and is rarely found in eukaryotes, where different enzymes (with different specific activities) accomplish the digestion of lactose. In humans, however, many adults are deficient in lactase, the intestinal enzyme that accomplishes digestion of the same substrate - as many as 70-90% of adults in most parts of the world are lactose-intolerant for this reason. Hypothesis My Hypothesis is that the immobilised enzyme will be most stable at the optimum temperature for enzyme activity, about 40 oC. The enzyme should show a decrease in stability at more extreme temperatures, 20 oC and 60 oC. Immobilising the enzyme means it should stay fairly stable at slight changes in temperature, 30 oC and 50 oC, because of the protection offered by the inert matrix. Enzymes are globular protein molecules that are responsible for all the biochemical reactions within cells.
Establish the cytoplasm concentration of carrot cells.
Biology Carrot Experiment Aim: To establish the cytoplasm concentration of carrot cells. Method * Use a pipette to measure the different volumes of sucrose and distilled water into six test tubes (use different pipettes for water and sucrose solutions to avoid contamination). In the following ratios in order to get the correct concentrations correct. Sucrose Concn Volume of sucrose cm3 Volume of water cm3 0 0 20 0.2 4 6 0.4 8 2 0.6 2 8 0.8 6 4 20 0 * Use a scalpel to cut 18 even-sized pieces of carrot approximately 10x5x5 millimetres in size. * Weigh three pieces of carrot then place them into one of the test tubes containing the sucrose solution and cover with Clingfilm. * Repeat this process for the six test tubes containing the sucrose solution * Leave for as long as possible at least 48 hours. Results Sucrose Conc. Volume of sucrose cm3 Volume of water cm3 Initial Mass of carrot (g) Final Mass of carrot (g) Change in mass % 0 0 20 3.51 4.03 4.81% 0.2 4 6 3.38 3.45 2.07% 0.4 8 2 3.3 3.33 0.91% 0.6 2 8 3.22 3 -6.83% 0.8 6 4 3.54 3.05 -13.84% 20 0 3.55 2.73 -23.10% Graph Conclusion My results show that in the sucrose concentrations 0-0.38 water entered the carrot cells from the surrounding sucrose solution. During this period the carrot cell cytoplasm has a lower water potential than the surrounding
Properties of Hydrocarbons - To find out how the flammability and thickness of oil products changes with boiling point.
Properties of Hydrocarbons Aim - To find out how the flammability and thickness of oil products changes with boiling point. * Equipment/ The equipment utilised in this experiemnt will be: . A heat proof mat to place on the surface to stop any spillage. 2. Some books will be required, just one or two would be necessary to prop up the slide to create a slope. 3. A slide for the oil to slide down, simply once a drop is placed at the top it will slide downward and be timed in it's speed. 4. Lastly a stopwatch to time the experiment. * Method/ This experiment will be conducted fairly simply; firstly, we must place the heat proof mat on the surface in use, then stack one or two fairly thick textbooks for a good height to be used as aslope. The slide itself will be a literal slide. With this in place we then get the oil in question [5 used in this experiment] we then very carefully release one drop of oil and begin timing it. It will then slide down the slide and once it hits the heat proof mat we then stop the stop watch, and record the time, after doing this for the first oil, we need to thorooughly wash and dry the slide and repeat it for the other 4 oils. * Fair Test/ In order for me to obtain the most fair and unbiased results possible, not to mention the most accurate and factual, I have to make sure the test is performed unbiasedly and fair in every field. I have
Investigating the Respiration of Yeast
Biology - Coursework Investigating The Respiration Of Yeast Factors That Can Affect It In order to alter the respiration of yeast, I will have to change a factor, this could be any of the following things - * Temperature * Amount Of Food (Sugar) * Amount Of Fluid (Water) * Different Types Of Yeast I have decided to investigate the effect of altering the temperature of the experiment. I predict that the rate of CO2 released will increase with the temperature. The theory behind this is quite complex. Energy is required for respiration (in this case, the transforming of Glucose (C6H12O6) into Carbon Dioxide (CO2)), so there must be a certain amount of energy to start the reaction. Known as 'Activation Energy'. This energy comes from heat energy in atoms, according to particle theory, as the temperature increases, the atoms will vibrate faster. However, adding certain enzymes to the reaction allows the activation energy to be lower. These enzymes require heat energy however to do this. In the human body, enzymes will denatureate over a temperature of 460 C, so, therefore, I will not allow the specimens to reach temperatures of above 500 C. There is no need for an oxygen intake, as this experiment requires Anaerobic Respiration The Equation For The Experiment Is - To carry out this experiment I will need: - * Electronic Scales * Conical Flask * Water Bath *
Best method for determining silver ions in solution
Chemistry Coursework Aim I am going to investigate which is the best method for determining silver ions in solution. I am interested to see whatever a electrode potential method or a chemical method (e.g. titration) is more appropriate, especially at low concentration. Background Information Redox If we consider the following reaction: 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) --> 2Na-Cl+(s) Salt (Sodium Chloride) is formed when Sodium is added to Chlorine gas. Sodium Chloride is an ionic compound, which is made up of Na+ and Cl- ions. The difference between Na(s) and Na+(s) is that an electron is removed from the Na atom and this a positive charge formed as the number of protons, which are positively charge is not equal to the negatively charged electron. But NaCl(s) is not charged overall, so where is the electron gone? If we look at the equation more closely, we can split the reaction into two parts, and this is called half equations: 2Na(s) --> 2Na+(s) + 2e- Cl2(g) + 2e- --> 2Cl-(s) The first equation shows that each sodium atom lost one electron and formed a Sodium ion and an electron. While each chlorine atom gained an electron and form Chloride ions. These two equation is balance and overall there is no electron lose as once a sodium has given up its electron, a chlorine atom will form an ion with this electron. We called this type of reaction Redox - Reduction and Oxidation. The sodium
A primary role for the glucose molecule is to act as a source of energy; a fuel
A primary role for the glucose molecule is to act as a source of energy; a fuel. Plants and animals use glucose as a soluble, easily distributed form of chemical energy which can be 'burnt' in the cytoplasm and mitochondria to release carbon dioxide, water and energy. This energy is then trapped in the ATP molecule and used for everything from muscle contraction to pumping water across cell membranes. Single sugar molecules can also be attached to proteins and lipids to modify their biological role as enzymes, signaling molecules and as components of membranes. Very often the addition of one or more sugar molecules will make the recipient molecule more soluble. Glucose (and other monosaccharides) are very hydrophilic ("water loving"), and this can be a problem. Pure monosaccharides, such as glucose, attract water. Any plant (or animal) that tried to store large amounts of glucose would have a serious problem with osmosis. Cells containing large numbers of glucose molecules would be constantly fighting the incessant movement of water from the outside of the cell to the inside. The osmotic pressure would be so great that even behind their protective walls, plant cells would have difficulty functioning. One way round this problem is to convert the monosaccharides to polysaccharides. These larger molecules do not have such a great osmotic pressure and hence can be stored with
Effects of Copper Sulphate on the Activity of Catalase
Effects of Copper Sulphate on the Activity of Catalase Introduction Enzymes are biological catalysts and their contribution to our existence is pivotal. Without them, human and animal digestion may take days. Enzymes therefore, help catalyse reactions at an increased metabolic rate. Each type of enzyme would normally act upon only one type of substrate molecule. This is due to the specific shape of the active site. Sometimes, enzyme activity is disrupted not because of temperature or other environmental factor but by alien molecules, which attach themselves to the enzyme molecules just as easily as the intended substrate. This is called inhibition. Aim I will be testing the effects of Copper Sulphate (inhibitor) on a reaction between catalase and hydrogen peroxide. I predict that the greater the concentration of the copper sulphate, the slower the reaction. Reactions will be measured at the rate of which oxygen is released from the H2O2. I will use yeast as a source of the enzyme catalase. If it is an inhibitor, I will go further and try to prove if it is a competitive or non-competitive by increasing substrate concentrations. Fig 1 shows word equation of the reaction. 2H2O2 2H2O + O2 Figure 1 Scientific Involvement At a molecule level, it is thought that the substrate molecules fit precisely into the enzyme molecules in the same way that a key fits a lock (see
The enzyme amylase digests starch to form sugar.Amylase is released in the mouth and carries out the reaction at body temperature 37 degrees centigrade.
The enzyme amylase digests starch to form sugar.Amylase is released in the mouth and carries out the reaction at body temperature 37 degrees centigrade.I will investigate the effects of temperatures higher and lower than room temperature on the rate of this reaction. Prediction I think that the reaction will be fastest at 50 degrees centigrade ,because at body temperature reactions are carried out quickly but at a higher temperaturem the enzyme and sugar particles will move faster due to a larger amount of heat energy,the two substances will collide more often therefore ,more reactoins.I believe that the reactions willbe slowest at 60 degrees centigrade. During extremes of temperatures,the active site of an enzyme changes ,the substrase will not be able to react with the enzyme because enzymes are specific(only react with certain shape substrase). The active site would become denatured resulting in less reactions causingg the rate of digestion to fall. The enzyme has an active site that helps it to recognise its substrase in a very specific way. Just like a key that only fits into a certain lock , each enzyme has its own specific substrase.This is called the lock and key theory,the diagram below shows this. The digestion of carbohydrates is performed by various enzymes. Amylase, found in saliva and in the intestine, breaks starch, dextrin, and glycogen into maltose,
