Adamson, S., Johnson, K., Williams, G., 1993, Spotlight Science 7, Stanley Thornes Ltd, Cheltenham. (KS 3)
< A4 sized paperback book which consisted of 158 pages. A very colourful book however did not use the same bright bold primary colours utilised by the KS 1&2 text mentioned above. The layout of the pages was fragmented containing a combination of factual information, activities, illustrations and key facts, this format contrasts with the more fluid layout of the KS 1&2 book reviewed, which considered one theme or idea at a time (per page). Generous amounts of texts were presented upon each page, this amount being the same as the KS 4 book reviewed. The large portions of text were evidently compensated for upon analysis of the reading age, this being reading age 7 years, thus demonstrating short sentence structures within the prose.
Appendix (B.2)
Johnson, K., 1992, Physics for you, Stanley Thornes Ltd, Cheltenham. (KS 4)
< A4 sized paperback book which consisted of 384 pages. The book made good use of muted pastel and natural colours, however did not use colour as abundantly as KS 1&2 and KS 3 books reviewed. Title words presented illustratively, for example the word ‘Heat’ with flames surrounding it. Equations and key facts boldly highlighted. Cartoon character used throughout to exemplify the concepts thus increasing the child’s familiarity with the text on a more personal level.
Appendix (B.3)
The Tables below illustrate further the comparison of the texts discussed above:
(Table 1.1)
(Table 1.2)
The front cover of the books became less fastidious as the KS increased; the same is true of the content layout of the books.
A greater use of diagrams and photographs in preference to illustrations as the KS increases, (KS1 – KS4) also occurred. A shift from bright bold primary colours to more muted, neutral colours as the KS increases, colour is also less relied upon in the same manner.
2.2. Knowledge, Process and Understanding Skills Analysis
Knowledge: Information or skills acquired through experience or education (Concise Oxford Dictionary 2001)
Knowledge is the accumulation of factual information (Burchfield, 1976)
Understanding: The ability to understand perceive the intended meaning of something) something (Concise Oxford Dictionary 2001)
Process: series of actions or steps towards achieving a particular end.
Process skills are practical investigative skills, (Concise Oxford Dictionary 2001)
Skills: Ability to do something well; expertise or dexterity (Concise Oxford Dictionary 2001)
Knowledge
At KS 1 pupils should know about everyday appliances that use electricity. Upon the completion of KS2 pupils should be able to represent series circuits by drawings and diagrams using conventional symbols, and how to construct series circuits on the basis of drawings and diagrams using conventional symbols.
Process Skills
KS1 should achieve pupils carrying out investigative work simple series circuits involving batteries, bulbs, wires and other components [for example, buzzers and motors].
At KS2 pupils should have progressed and be constructing circuits incorporating a battery or power supply and a range of switches, to make electrical devices work [ for example, buzzers, motors]. They should also be discovering how changing the number of components [for example, batteries, bulbs, wires] in a series circuit can make a bulb brighter or dimmer. KS3 Should see pupils designing and constructing series and parallel circuits, and measuring current and voltage. Finally, KS4 enables pupils to discover how current varies with voltage in a range of devices [for example, resistors, filament bulbs, diodes, light dependant resistors (LDRs) and thermistors]
Understanding
How a switch can be used to break a circuit should be taught and understood at KS1. The understanding of how changing the number of components [for example, batteries, bulbs, wires] in a series circuit can make a bulb brighter or dimmer is a KS2 concept. While KS3 aims to promote the understanding of the current in a series circuit being dependant upon the number of cells and the number and nature of other components and that current is not being ‘used up’ by components. This level also introduces the understanding of energy is transfer from batteries and other sources to other components in electrical circuits. KS4 demands the greatest percentage of understanding with regard to topics taught, resistors are heated when a charge flows through them, the qualitative effect of changing resistance on a current in a circuit, the quantitative relationship between resistance, voltage and current and finally how current varies with voltage in a range of devices [for example, resistors, filament bulbs, diodes, light dependant resistors (LDRs) and thermistors].
Table to Highlight the Progression of Skills Demanded by the National Curriculum
(Table 2)
KS 1, Sc4, (1 a, b & c)
It is evident that children must acquire Knowledge (a), which may then be investigated (b) and consolidated through understanding of how a switch can be used to break a circuit (c). This pattern of learning is demonstrated throughout the syllabus, KS 2 below combines process and understanding skills for (a) and (b), followed by the acquisition of facts demonstrating the need for pupils knowledge skills.
KS 2, Sc4, (1 a, b & c)
Therefore it can be seen that the required skills do not exist in isolation at any point in the syllabus, but that a combination of the three is necessary for successful learning.
KS 3, Sc4, (1 a, b & c)
Process skills appear to be constant throughout from KS1 – 4. The emphasis based upon skills of understanding increases with the KS level. This is due to the knowledge and investigative work previously achieved at levels 1 and 2, enabling the pupils to utilise this knowledge to achieve an understanding of the concepts presented at the higher levels.
KS 4, Sc4, (1 a, b &c)
As stated it is apparent that a greater emphasis is placed upon skills of understanding as the KS increases, this is reflected in the texts reviewed (Appendix B). More scientific words and difficult concepts are gradually increased based upon the assumption of prior knowledge and understanding as stated and assumed in the syllabus.
3. Progression achieved through classroom methodology
Traditional learning is represented by a teacher centred non interactive mode of instruction (Bodner et al., 1997). The teacher was believed to be the sole source of knowledge and it was taken for granted that children would retain a sense of reality within their learning. However Piaget (1926) stated that intuitive concepts are formed as pupils attempt to organise experience, they do so in order to reduce the perceived complexity of the world. This process of intuitive concept development starts at birth, therefore prior to embarking upon education a number of intuitive concepts will have already developed. The shift towards constructivist learning which has now taken place in schools (Osborne, 1984) believes pupils should not be passive learners but interactive members of a group; this learning theory does not consider the teacher to be the sole source of knowledge. Thus constructive learning enables misconceptions within the subject to be highlighted and dealt within an appropriate manner.
Prior to being able to deal with false ideas a pupil may have, it is necessary to identify the existing misconceptions held by the child. This may be done through observation of homework, class tests, group/individual discussions; concept cartoons (Appendix D) or by a survey sheet designed to highlight common misconceptions (Appendix C). Once this has been achieved methodology may be put in place to overcome apparent difficulties.
This section outlines conceptual learning difficulties at each key stage. Possible methodology is also suggested to overcome the problems associated with these difficulties which the pupil may find mentally challenging. A popular misconception that is related to the teaching of electrical circuits has been highlighted along with suggested strategies that may help to eliminate misinterpretation of the key scientific facts.
3.1. Conceptual Difficulties
Key Stage (1)
At this level pupils need to understand that a switch may be used to break a circuit (KS1, Sc4, 1(a).). It is a common misconception that electricity starts at the battery and goes through each component of the circuit in turn, so that the switch needs to be on the ‘positive’ side of the lamp to turn it on and off (Appendix D). This misconception may be overcome using simple practical circuit equipment and placing the switch at different positions around the circuit.
Key Stage (3)
Pupils are required to know that current is not ‘used up’ in a circuit (KS3, Sc4, 1(b).). Osbourne and Freyberg’s work demonstrated the above idea to be a common misconception (cited in The Effective Teaching of Secondary Science).
More Current
Less Current
Current was believed to have been used up by the battery; therefore there was less current ‘going back’ to the battery. Some pupils also expected a second bulb to be less bright than the first when two bulbs are in a circuit due to current being ‘used up’. This misconception may be overcome by plenty of practical experiments using an ammeter to measure current at different points around the circuit to demonstrate that current is constant. However this will not aid the pupils understanding of what actually is being lost. In order for this target to be achieved it is believed necessary to separate the concept of current flow from energy transfer. A greater understanding of the chemical reactions which occur inside the cell is also recommended, in addition to suitable analogies such as water and heat flowing through a central heating system (Borges 1999).
Key Stage (4)
At KS4 pupils are expected to understand resistance within a circuit. There is a range of ability to conduct electricity, and materials which do not conduct electricity well have a higher resistance than good conductors. The resistance of a wire is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. This concept may be explained in a variety of ways; for example pupils trying to squeeze through tubes of various sizes the larger the cross-sectional area the greater the ease of travel from one end to another. However difficulties occur with regard to the brightness of a bulb dependant upon the resistance of the connecting wires. It is at this stage that pupils will believe that a thicker wire shall equate a brighter bulb. This of course a misconception, the bulb consists of a high resistance wire conducting filament which acts as the limiting factor to determine electric current within the circuit. In order to conquer this notion the effect of the filament must be stressed alongside plentiful practical experiments measuring resistance and current around a circuit with and without bulbs.
3.2. A Popular Misconception
Current is associated with many misconceptions, 87% of German secondary school pupils thought that current is energy (Rhoneck). Current was also believed to be the strength or force of the current. A separate study (Maichle) concluded that 23% of 300 pupil
Secondary school sample believed that current and voltage is the same thing. There are many proposed reasons for the development of the misconceptions stated above, the most popular theory being the early focus upon current, believed to lead to the current = voltage notion. Clearly defined definitions are necessary if misconceptions are to be avoided at this stage;
(Cited in the Effective Teaching of Secondary Science)
However multiple definitions used to describe one particular concept are highly destructive to a child’s understanding. This is due to confusion regarding which concept is multi labelled, voltage, current, charge? For this reason one term should be agreed upon across a school dependant upon the examination board used and their choice of diction, this should be applied from the moment the child enters the school. A combination of electromotive force, potential difference and voltage should therefore not be discussed. It has also been suggested that pupils are introduced to the concept of voltage prior to their introduction to current, thus aiming to make pupils ‘voltage minded’ due to the fact that voltage is in fact a property of an isolated battery. It would appear that this is logical order in which to introduce the topic to pupils as voltage precedes the existence of current. Generous amounts of time needs to be allowed for pupils to experiment with volt meters and ammeters in order to diffuse the voltage = current concept which may exist. In order for the practical to achieve the desired leaning outcomes the function of each meter must be repeatedly stressed, ‘ammeter measures current & volt meter measures voltage’.
The explanation of new concepts will take place most successfully by using a number of different methods, for example, verbally and visually”’ What is the use of a book’, thought Alice, ‘without pictures or conversations?’” (Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland) these methods may be used in addition to a pupil attempting to discover the new concept for themselves. The procedure of linking information and the development of meaning may be assessed by a teacher through the production of flow charts, diagrams and concept maps (Hammer et al, 1988). Ideas can be easily traced from the memory bank of an individual if they are appropriately linked to pre-existing ideas. It is believed that concept maps can increase conceptual learning by allowing pupils to visualise a group of concepts and their interrelationships (Novak & Gowin 1984). (See Appendix (E) for an example of a concept map). Science maps may also be a useful tool as a pictorial representation of the separate concepts which need to be studied thus disabling the temptation to confuse on concept with another (Appendix F)
Conclusion
There many ways in which scientific misconceptions may be dealt with, such teaching models are becoming increasingly popular. The ideal situation of course would be to prevent the assimilation of the misconstruction in the first instance through correct continuous and pupil sympathetic teaching. However this is not always possible due to the fact that not all false ideas are implanted in a child’s mind, but a large proportion grow from the child’s own imagination in order to rationalise the visual observation of scientific concepts. In such situations the primary objective is to discover existing false conceptions which exist, secondly use as many methods possible to explain the same concept, keep language as simple and jargon free as the subject allows. The final step must be to repeat previous concepts when dealing with related topics and make as many connections as possible with what is going on in the child’s world, enable them to live and relate to the science being taught.
