The Agricultural Revolution
The Agricultural Revolution
The Agricultural Revolution occurred between 1750 and 1900 when the way in which farmers produced food in this country changed. In 1750 most people lived and worked in villages producing food. As the country went through the Industrial Revolution though it was necessary to increase the amount of food grown. This was because the population was increasing quite rapidly.
In the early part of the eighteenth century most farmers had strips of land that they would grow their food on. This system had many disadvantages. Banks of earth separating the strips were wasted land, drainage was poor and because the farmers new little about fertilizers they had to leave land fallow (unused) every four years.
It can be argued that there was no Agricultural Revolution as the changes in farming were gradual. By the early nineteenth century farmers were beginning to use the Norfolk Crop rotation system. This system meant that no land had to remain fallow. The system worked like this:
Each area of land would be split into four sections. The crop that was grown on each field would be rotated so that different nutrients would be taken from the land. In the first year turnips or another root crop would be grown; in the second year barley was grown in the field (barley could be sold at a profit); in the third year clover or a grass crop was grown and in the fourth year wheat was grown in the field (wheat could also be sold for a profit).
As the demand for food increased people began to make improvements to the types of machines used on farms. A seed drill and threshing machine being amongst the first new inventions to help farmers. Inventions such as these, along with the enclosure of fields, helped agriculture to develop rapidly and produce enough food for the growing population.
The Agricultural Revolution
The Agricultural Revolution occurred between 1750 and 1900 when the way in which farmers produced food in this country changed. In 1750 most people lived and worked in villages producing food. As the country went through the Industrial Revolution though it was necessary to increase the amount of food grown. This was because the population was increasing quite rapidly.
In the early part of the eighteenth century most farmers had strips of land that they would grow their food on. This system had many disadvantages. Banks of earth separating the strips were wasted land, drainage was poor and because the farmers new little about fertilizers they had to leave land fallow (unused) every four years.
It can be argued that there was no Agricultural Revolution as the changes in farming were gradual. By the early nineteenth century farmers were beginning to use the Norfolk Crop rotation system. This system meant that no land had to remain fallow. The system worked like this:
Each area of land would be split into four sections. The crop that was grown on each field would be rotated so that different nutrients would be taken from the land. In the first year turnips or another root crop would be grown; in the second year barley was grown in the field (barley could be sold at a profit); in the third year clover or a grass crop was grown and in the fourth year wheat was grown in the field (wheat could also be sold for a profit).
As the demand for food increased people began to make improvements to the types of machines used on farms. A seed drill and threshing machine being amongst the first new inventions to help farmers. Inventions such as these, along with the enclosure of fields, helped agriculture to develop rapidly and produce enough food for the growing population. Improvements in farm machinery (Small's Plough), techniques and crops all increased productivity.
Improvements in agriculture created today's rural landscape. Ferm touns and their rigs were cleared away to make compact farms with enclosed fields. Most of the common grazing ...
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As the demand for food increased people began to make improvements to the types of machines used on farms. A seed drill and threshing machine being amongst the first new inventions to help farmers. Inventions such as these, along with the enclosure of fields, helped agriculture to develop rapidly and produce enough food for the growing population. Improvements in farm machinery (Small's Plough), techniques and crops all increased productivity.
Improvements in agriculture created today's rural landscape. Ferm touns and their rigs were cleared away to make compact farms with enclosed fields. Most of the common grazing was brought into cultivation and a huge amount of labours was invested in clearing and draining previously waste ground such as Kincardine Moss.
Improvements in farm machinery (Small's Plough), techniques and crops all increased productivity. The Highland and Agricultural Society was formed in 1784 and began its annual show in 1824. Selective stockbreeding improved livestock. The Aberdeen Angus, Belted Galloway, the Cheviot and the Blackface sheep were especially suited to the Highlands.
An enduring myth
For many years the agricultural revolution in England was thought to have occurred because of three major changes: the selective breeding of livestock; the removal of common property rights to land; and new systems of cropping, involving turnips and clover. All this was thought to have been due to a group of heroic individuals, who, according to one account, are 'a band of men whose names are, or ought to be, household words with English farmers: Jethro Tull, Lord Townshend, Arthur Young, Bakewell, Coke of Holkham and the Collings.'
These men are seen as having triumphed over a conservative mass of country bumpkins. They are thought to have single-handedly, in a few years, transformed English agriculture from a peasant subsistence economy to a thriving capitalist agricultural system, capable of feeding the teeming millions in the new industrial cities.
All these details are in some dispute, but there is general agreement that the role of the 'Great Men' as pioneers and innovators has been exaggerated. 'Turnip' Townshend, for example, was a boy when turnips were first grown on his estate, and he could not, as the textbooks tell us, have introduced them from Hanover. Jethro Tull was something of a crank and not, as we have been told, the first person to invent a seed drill, which in any case was not used by farmers on any scale until a century after his treatise Horse hoeing husbandry was first published in 1731.
To continue, Coke of Holkham was a great publicist (especially of his own achievements), but some of the farming practices he encouraged (such as the employment of the Norfolk four-course rotation in unsuitable conditions) may have been positively harmful. And Arthur Young, the agricultural writer, has been described as a 'a mountebank, a charlatan and a scribbler' by one author, although others see him as a proto-social scientist. Finally, Bakewell's New Leicester sheep was a success, but his Longhorn cattle were not. It seems that only the Collings brothers, who developed the shorthorn cattle breed, can escape criticism. Despite this evidence, the myths associated with these individuals have proved extremely difficult to dislodge from literature not directed at a specialist historical audience.
Despite these criticisms, it is still argued that an English agricultural revolution happened in the century or so after 1750. One obvious reason behind the argument is the fact that an expanding population from this time on was largely fed by home production. In 1750 English population stood at about 5.7 million. It had probably reached this level before, in the Roman period, then around 1300, and again in 1650. But at each of these periods the population ceased to grow, essentially because agriculture could not respond to the pressure of feeding extra people. Contrary to expectation, however, population grew to unprecedented levels after 1750, reaching 16.6 million in 1850, and agricultural output expanded with it.
One reason output grew was through new farming systems involving the rotation of turnips and clover, although these were part of the general intensification of agricultural production, with more food being produced from the same area of land. Intensity was also increased by land reclamation, especially the draining of the fenlands of eastern England, from the 17th century onwards, when a low-intensity agricultural system based on fishing and fowling was replaced by a high-intensity system based on arable crops.
Other examples include the clearing of woodland and the reclamation of upland pastures. This extent of this activity is impossible to quantify, but may have affected some 30 per cent of the agricultural area of England, from the mid-17th to the mid-19th centuries.
The mix of crops also changed, replacing low-yielding types, such as rye, with higher-yielding types such as wheat or barley. The balance between arable and permanent pasture also changed, so that more productive arable land was replacing permanent pasture. This does not mean that fodder supplies were falling, quite the reverse, for the loss of permanent pasture was made good by new fodder crops, especially turnips and clover, in arable rotations. Not only did these crops result in an increase in fodder yields, but they were also instrumental in the reclamation of many lowland heaths from rough pasture to productive arable farms.
The most important new crop in this context is the turnip, because it meant that the area of fallow land could be reduced. This was because one of the purposes of the fallow was to clear the land of weeds by ploughing, but a crop of turnips sown in rows could be hoed to remove weeds while it was growing. Thus fallow land was about 20 per cent of the arable area in England in 1700, and steadily declined to reach only 4 per cent in 1871. One of the earliest pieces of evidence we have, concerning the cultivation of turnips for animal fodder, is the inventory taken for probate purposes, in 1638, of the possessions of a Mr Pope, of Burgh Castle in Suffolk. But turnips were not common until the mid-18th century, and not widespread as part of the new Norfolk four-course rotation until the 19th century.
Cereal yields also increased. Wheat yields increased by about a quarter between 1700 and 1800, and then by about a half between 1800 and 1850, and the most recent research emphasizes the early 19th century as the period of crucial change. The key to increasing cereal yields was nitrogen, which we now know was the 'limiting factor' in determining cereal yields before about 1830.
Before this time, farmers did not know formally of the existence of nitrogen, but we can interpret many of their actions in terms of the conservation of existing stocks of nitrogen, and the addition of new nitrogen to the soil. Existing stocks were exploited, for example, by ploughing up permanent pasture to grow cereals. Available nitrogen was conserved by feeding bullocks in stalls, collecting their manure (which is rich in nitrogen), and placing it where it was needed. Also, most importantly, new nitrogen was added to the soil using legumes - a class of plants that have bacteria attached to their roots, which convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates in the soil that can be used by whatever plants are grown there in the following few years.
Legumes had been sown since the Middle Ages in the form of peas, beans and vetches, but from the mid-17th century farmers began to grow clover, both white and red, for the same purpose, and by the 19th century had dramatically increased the quantity of nitrogen in the soil available for cereal crops. In Norfolk, for example, between 1700 and 1850, the doubling of the area of legumes and a switch to clover tripled the rate of symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
This new system of farming was remarkable because it was sustainable; the output of food was increased dramatically, without endangering the long-term viability of English agriculture. But just as a sustainable agriculture had been achieved, the development of chemical fertilizers and other external inputs undermined this sustainability. An essentially organic agriculture was gradually replaced by a farming system that depended on energy-intensive inputs dependent on the exploitation of fossil fuels.
Legumes had been sown since the Middle Ages in the form of peas, beans and vetches, but from the mid-17th century farmers began to grow clover, both white and red, for the same purpose, and by the 19th century had dramatically increased the quantity of nitrogen in the soil available for cereal crops. In Norfolk, for example, between 1700 and 1850, the doubling of the area of legumes and a switch to clover tripled the rate of symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
This new system of farming was remarkable because it was sustainable; the output of food was increased dramatically, without endangering the long-term viability of English agriculture. But just as a sustainable agriculture had been achieved, the development of chemical fertilizers and other external inputs undermined this sustainability. An essentially organic agriculture was gradually replaced by a farming system that depended on energy-intensive inputs dependent on the exploitation of fossil fuels.
A second reason why we can claim an agricultural revolution in the century after 1750 is that as each agricultural worker produced more food, so the proportion of the workforce in agriculture fell. This falling proportion of workers in agriculture enabled the proportion working in industry and services to rise: in other words improved agricultural production made the industrial revolution possible, and many would regard the industrial revolution as the beginning of the modern world. By 1850 only 22 per cent of the British workforce was in agriculture; the smallest proportion for any country in the world.
Exactly how those working on the land were able to produce more food remains something of a mystery. More animal power was available to English farmers than to their counterparts elsewhere, and from the 1820s and 30s a wide variety of machinery was developed, which was particularly important for improving the efficiency of the cutting and threshing of grain. The improvement in labours productivity, however, had begun long before this.
The key probably lies in the way the English workforce was organized and employed. The development of agrarian capitalism in England, with those involved in agriculture divided into landowners, capitalist tenant farmers and laborers, saw the development of better farm management and more efficiency in using the workforce.
Debate about the agricultural revolution in England is still full of controversy. Some historians, particularly those using the techniques of economics to derive indices of output and productivity from prices, completely dismiss the idea of an agricultural revolution after 1750 and argue that the major changes happened earlier. Since no national agricultural statistics were produced until 1866 it is understandable that historians search for techniques that purport to give them the information they want: but it is difficult to avoid the overwhelming mass of evidence from a wide variety of sources that points to the period after 1750 as witnessing an agricultural revolution.
