The Production of Vaccines using Genetic Engineering.

The Production of Vaccines using Genetic Engineering

As the worlds population continues to rise annually, new technology becomes know to man! Technology is a never-ending process where newer and better things are being discovered. The area of technology that will be discussed here is biotechnology. Biotechnology is the harnessing by man of the ability of organisms to produce drugs, food or other useful products. Micro-organisms are the main ones involved in biotechnology, especially bacteria and fungi. More recently, genetic engineering or the altering of the genes, the building blocks which determine the make up of an organism, has been increasingly used in biotechnology. In the course of this essay, genetic engineering will be introduced together with vaccines. When they were first discovered and the development of the two combined. From this, ethical and politic issues will arise, where future possibilities will form personal opinions.

Firstly vaccines, a vaccine is a modified preparation of a virus or bacteria that is no longer dangerous but can produce an immune response. It therefore gives immunity against infection with the actual disease. Vaccines can be administered by mouth or by a hypodermic syringe and are not effective immediately as it takes a time for the recipients’ immune system to develop a memory for the modified virus or bacterium by producing specific antibodies.(1)

The word vaccine is derived from the Latin word for cow, vacca, and the history of vaccines is, not surprisingly, linked to the cow, as you will see. The ancient Greeks understood that people who survived plague epidemics were resistant when it struck them again. The ancient Chinese first inoculated people with a weakened strain of the smallpox (variola) virus to prevent further infection. The wife of a British ambassador, Lady Mary Wortley-Montague, introduced the practice of “variolation” to Britain in 1721 after observing the procedure performed in Turkey.

But it was not until 1796 that the studies of English country doctor Edward Jenner finally set us on the path that led to what we now call a “Vaccine”. Aware of the variolation procedure, Jenner noticed that milkmaids who had contracted cowpox, a disease of cattle that causes little harm to humans, were immune to smallpox – a fatal disease. He tested his theory or cowpox by scratching the skin of a young child with fluids from the milkmaid’s skin sores. A few weeks later he then exposed the child to smallpox, but the boy remained disease free. While such a procedure would be considered unethical today (ethical issues mentioned later), Jenner was merely controlling the timing of the child’s exposure to smallpox – because in those days everyone was exposed eventually, and in most cases, during their childhood.

Jenner’s achievements were soon to spread quickly across Europe. However, it was 100 years before other vaccines were developed. The next ones were developed primarily to prevent animal diseases. In 1879, a French scientist named Louis Pasteur discovered that inoculating chickens with a weakened form of the cholera bacillus immunised them against more virulent forms of the disease. Pasteur decided then to apply the same principle to anthrax. A disease in the 1870’s that wiped out many French livestock.

Pasteur next developed a vaccine to protect dogs against rabies. The vaccine was later used to save a ...

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Pasteur next developed a vaccine to protect dogs against rabies. The vaccine was later used to save a child who had been bitten by a rabid dog. It was the first instance in which an animal served as a model for the development of a vaccine for humans. Since Pasteur’s experiments in the late 19th century, animal research has been critically important to the development of vaccines for both humans and animals and continues to be vital today. (2)

Secondly genetic engineering, genetic engineering is the process of taking genes and segments of DNA from one species and putting them into another species, thus breaking the species barrier and artificially modifying the DNA of various species. These changes in the DNA result in an alternation of reproductive and hereditary processes of the organisms since the process is irreversible and the organism’s offspring will also possess this unique DNA. (3)

Then combining the two, genetic engineering and vaccines, genetically engineered vaccines were born. By the early 1990’s, scientists had begun to study new approaches to the production of vaccines that differ in structure from traditional ones. The strategy involves genetic engineering, or recombinant DNA technology, which permits scientists to combine a segment of DNA from one organism with the gene(s) of a second organism.

Scientists have demonstrated that these recombinant vaccines activate the immune systems of rodents and nonhuman primates, eliciting both anti-body type immunity and killer cell-type immunity against variety of disease-producing organisms. Researchers are currently conducting additional tests in animals to develop ways of enhancing the immune response before moving to the stage of clinical testing. DNA vaccines can be administered intranasally, injected intramuscularly, or delivered by gene gun, an instrument that propels tiny DNA-coated gold beads into the body’s cell.

Many diseases for which researchers are attempting to develop vaccines are extremely complex. Many diseases are still today, not fully understood and present an enormous challenge. New technologies resulting from scientific advancements in the area of molecular biology are aiding the development of a new generation of vaccines. These preparations involve the introduction of engineered DNA into the body. Animal models are essential to their development because they continue to provide the best way of identifying promising and safe vaccines before advancing to human trials.

These recombinant vaccines raise hopes that one day they will be acceptable for use in humans to prevent these misunderstood diseases like AIDS, malaria, hepatitis C, and other infectious agents for which currently available vaccines produce only limited protection or do not exist at all. Recombinant vaccines also raise hope for the control of cancer. While cancer cells are not foreign, they carry proteins that are different from those of normal cells. Cancer vaccines are aimed at stimulating an immune response against these tumour proteins. At present, vaccines aimed at prolonging the lives of people whose tumours have been surgically removed are being tested in early trials.

As far as any future for genetically engineered vaccines goes, there are always going to be controversies and arguments for and against their uses and liability. Firstly, one of the main controversies within society is the fact that any new advances found in research may be skewed to interests of the richer countries in the world. Therefore countries like the U.S.A and specific European countries will benefit over countries like poorer countries in Africa, Mexico, and Brazil etc.

Genetically engineered vaccines also raise ethical issues which include the following; Violation of natural organisms’ intrinsic values. Environmentalists’ concerns are that tampering with nature by mixing genes among species is ethically wrong. There are also objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versa. Another ethical issue is purely based on the stress that the modelled animals will encounter. (4)

As a whole, the problems are often the case of blurred issues. Neither the benefits nor the risks are clear-cut or well defined. One main benefit is the example whereby genetic engineering of food can be developed into ‘edible vaccines’. (5) Consider potatoes, bananas or tomatoes. If they are genetically engineered to contain vaccines against different diseases, such as hepatitis B then these vaccines are easy to take. They have no need for refrigerating and are cheap to buy. Yet a Greenpeace member argues “We view genetically engineered foods as having the potential for the largest environmental disaster in human history.” A director of the Organic Consumers Union also against the idea says that the bio-engineered vaccines are “a very bad idea. You don’t want biotech vaccines out in the environment … causing unknown problems … with unknown consequences.” (6)

These opponents and many others of biotechnology try to assure people that their aim is to protect human life. However, their consistent stand against such technology that potentially saves millions of lives and that can prevent particular diseases clearly demonstrates the opposite. Instead it shows that these people have no concern for human life.

Environmentalists hold strongly that mankind should not change or alter nature in order to serve his ends. Nature, they believe, must be “protected” against human intrusion, and we should learn to adapt ourselves to our environment rather than adapt the environment to our needs. From this philosophical perspective, genetic engineering is inherently evil, since it rests on the premise that man is morally entitled to reshape nature to serve his ends. This is the reason why environmentalists oppose it strongly. (6)

In conclusion, since the first vaccine was found and used, over 200 years ago today, vaccines have brought under control many of the most devastating diseases in the world. The use of vaccines has led to eradication of naturally occurring smallpox around the world. Worldwide vaccination programs have been designed with targets of eliminating other life threatening diseases. Vaccines not only protect us humans, but also our pets and keep our food supply safe and safeguard our quality of life. The huge role of animal modelling and research in these achievements cannot be understated and undermined. As technology continues to improve all the time, modern science also continues to develop new and innovative vaccines to prevent the most challenging of diseases and to respond to the threat of bio-terrorism which is an increasing concern, animal research will continue to play a vital role. Genetic engineering now discovered will never be forgotten nor will it disappear. As a result this technology is unavoidable. Opponents of this biotechnology will continue to fight their corner, which personally I feel is a battle already lost!

Bibliography

(1) The Dorling Kindersley Science Encyclopaedia (Book)

(2) Nature Genetics / History of vaccines (Internet)

(3) Claremont Junior Science Dictionary (Book)

(4) Britannica CD ROM with Internet support (CD ROM)

(5) Nature Genetics / History of vaccines (Internet)

(6) The morality of genetic engineering by David Holcberg (Internet)

Researched and Written by Ryan Chandler