The Application of Enzymes in Industry and Medicine.
The Application of Enzymes in Industry and Medicine. Enzymes are Biological catalysts, allowing the chemical reactions of metabolism to take place, controlling the speed of the reaction. They are found in all living cells and are divided into two main groups, intracellular and extra cellular. Intracellular are found and work inside the cells, therefore are secreted inside the cell membrane, from where they control metabolism. The cells will also produce the extracellular, but these only achieve their full affect outside of the cell, so are secreted outside the cell membrane. Examples of extracellular enzymes include digestion enzymes such as pepsin. Enzymes are complex globular proteins. Their long peptide chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds are wound, folded and bonded into a precise 3D structure, owing their activity to this particular shape. They are compounds of high molecular weight. See Figure 1. (www.worthington-biochem.com) Hydrogen, ionic, and disulphide bonds as well as hydrophobic interactions all hold the chain in its three-dimensional spherical form. Each enzyme has a unique shape. The precise shape of the active site (the place at which the substrate binds) is so because the enzyme is specific to one substrate-specificity. Thus meaning that the active site of the enzyme has a distinct
Investigating the factors affecting the size of current flowing through a length of resistivity putty.
04/02/97 ????? GCSE PHYSICS SC1 INVESTIGATION 996/7 INVESTIGATING THE FACTORS AFFECTING THE SIZE OF CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH A LENGTH OF RESISTIVITY PUTTY. CANDIDATE NUMBER 6247 CENTRE NUMBER 15131 PLANNING AIMS The main aim of this investigation will be to investigate the factors that have an effect on the size of the current passing through a length of resistivity putty. I will also try to explain my results using a number of models formulae and theories including Ohm's law, the formula for resistivity and a water model. VARIABLES Below is a list of the variables which are likely to have a major effect on the size of the current passing through a length of resistivity, putty: . The length of putty used. 2. The cross-sectional area of the putty. (Including the amount of contact between the plates and the putty). 3. The temperature of the putty. 4. The voltage across the putty. 5. The resistance of the wires etc. and the contact resistance between the plates and the putty. Other factors, for example the density of the carbon inside the putty, or the pressure at which the experiment is carried out, may also have an effect on the size of the current, however these factors would either be difficult to control in a school physics laboratory or are not likely to have a significant effect compared to the inaccuracies of the experiment. The two
Effect of nitrate concentration on the growth of Duckweeds
Introduction & Method At the beginning of the experiment, I put on a lab coat to protect myself from any danger that may occur. I made sure that all my equipments were clean and dry before I started, and I also measured the temperature of the room to confirm it was around room temperature. I then made sure that the ice cube tray was clean, I put a little label on one end of the tray to indicate my starting point row of the ice cube tray. I then made a little note to myself that the label indicated the row which will contain the 0.0% x 10-3 concentration of nitrate in the solution, and the rows onwards will contain the concentration of nitrogen in solution in ascending orders which I will use (0.0, 0.4, 0.8, 1.2, 1.6 and 2.4 % x 10-3). I Whilst pouring the solutions into a glass beaker I put on goggles and gloves to protect my eyes and hands from any contacts with the ammonium nitrate solution, as any contact can lead to irritation of the skin and eye. I poured 80-90cm3 of the 1st concentration which contained 0.0% x 10-3 of nitrate into a 100cm3 glass beaker. Next I used a clean syringe to measure out 25cm3 of the solution into the 1st well (near my label). The tray had 3 wells in a row and there were 6 rows, I repeatedly added 25 cm3 of the same ammonium nitrate solution into the remaining two wells of that row, so that I will obtain a result of three replicates with each
A2 coursework- The effects of bile salts on digestion of fat
How effective are bile salts in aiding the digestion of fats by Lipase. Preliminary work Aim: To investigate which food stuff (milk, cream and egg) works best with the enzyme lipase. In order to investigate this I will test pH with a pH probe after 2 minute intervals for 30 minutes. Bile salts act as detergents and emulsify fats in the small intestine making it easier for them to be digested by lipase and to be absorbed into the lymphatic capillaries in the villi. In my preliminary work I will be provided with the following food stuffs to test: * Egg: consists of 11.2g/1000ml of fats; 3.2g of which saturated. * Cream: consists of 18g/1000ml monounsaturated; 0.5g/1000ml polyunsaturated * Milk: 4.0g/1000ml of fats; 2.5g/1000ml unsaturated Prediction From looking at the above fat contents for each of the food stuffs, I predict that the pH will decrease the most for cream as it contains the most amount of fat. So there will be more fatty acids and glycerol produced when cream is firstly emulsified by bile salts and then broken down by Lipase as the concentration of Hydrogen ions (H+) will increase and so lower the pH of the solution. Apparatus The following apparatus needs to be collected to conduct the method. * 3 boiling tubes- boiling tubes will be used instead of test tubes because they have a bigger surface area. * Boiling tube rack- boiling tube rack help
Potassium permangonate
An Investigation into the Kinetics of the reaction between Potassium Permanganate and Oxalic Acid with a Sulphuric Acid Catalyst Aim The primary objective of my investigation is determining the orders of reaction for the oxidation of oxalic acid by potassium permanganate, with a sulphuric acid catalyst: 2 MnO4-(aq ) + 5 H2C2O4(aq ) + 6 H3O+(aq ) --> 2Mn2+(aq ) + 10 CO2(aq ) + 14 H2O I will find this by applying alterations to certain factors that affect the rate of the reaction, and observing which ones have a greater bearing. These factors will be the concentrations of each reactant and the catalyst, and also the temperature of the solutions at the time of reaction. I will consider: o What is the rate equation? o What is the order of reaction for each reactant? o What is the activation enthalpy of the reaction? Apparatus * 250 cm³ volumetric flasks * Bulb pipettes-10cm³, 25cm³, 50cm ¯³ * Teat pipettes * 100 cm³ beakers * Distilled water * Digital Thermometer * Water Bath * Colorimeter * Stopclock * Cuvettes Apparatus Descriptions and Justifications The 250 cm³ volumetric flasks have been designed to allow the preparation of solutions, with a very high degree of accuracy regarding both volume and concentration. I will be using class B flasks, which have a tiny error. These volumetric flasks have been calibrated at room temperature, so will be
Characteristics of Ohmic and Non Ohmic Conductors.
Physics Coursework Characteristics of Ohmic and Non Ohmic Conductors Every part of matter is made up of atoms. Atoms are called the building blocks of nature. These atoms consist of a nucleus and shells. The protons and neutrons are part of the nucleus and the electrons are distributed in shells around the nucleus. The protons have a positive charge, neutrons are not charged and the electrons are negatively charged. Electrons have no overall mass while neutrons and protons both have a mass of 1 unit. This is how the relative atomic mass is calculated, by adding up the number of protons and neutrons. The electrons are distributed in the shell in order of the amount of energy that they hold. So according to that I will introduce the concept of electricity. Electricity is a flow of electrons. Electricity can be transferred by some materials and some cannot transfer it. Conductors are any materials or substances that can allow heat or electricity to pass through them. Conduction means that heat or current is transferred from atom to atom on its way out. Some materials are good conductors; some are bad conductors while some do not conduct at all. Such materials or substances that do not allow heat or current to pass through are called insulators. These insulators usually do not have enough electrons to carry the current and thus they are non-conducting substances. One example
An Investigation Into the Effect of Substrate Concentration On the Rate of Enzyme Activity.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECT OF SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION ON THE RATE OF ENZYME ACTIVITY INTRODUCTION Hydrogen peroxide is a toxic waste product of respiration. It's conversion to water and oxygen is catalysed by the enzyme CATALASE, which is present in most cells. 2H202 2H20 + 02 hydrogen CATALASE ENZYME water oxygen peroxide gas Hypothesis Increasing the substrate concentration will increase the rate at which hydrogen peroxide is broken down to water and oxygen by the catalase enzyme. Null Hypothesis Increasing the substrate concentration will not affect the rate at which hydrogen peroxide is broken down to water and oxygen by the catalase enzyme. Possible Methods There are a number of possible methods for carrying out this investigation. The easiest way to monitor the reaction is to measure the production of oxygen because it is the gaseous waste product: ) In this method the reaction takes pace in a test tube. The test tube is connected by a thin glass tube to a gas syringe. As the oxygen is given off by the reaction, it travels through the glass tube and into the syringe, this pushes the syringe outwards so there is an increased volume of oxygen in the syringe. As the volume of the syringe increases the amount can be measured on the scale of the syringe: Gas syringe H202 and catalase enzyme The problem with this method is
out how different concentrations of the enzyme pectinase affect the degradation of the substrate pectin
PLANNING: - Aim: My aim is to find out how different concentrations of the enzyme pectinase affect the degradation of the substrate pectin, and hence the volume of clarified apple juice produced in a specific duration of time. Hypothesis: Will different enzyme concentrations have different effects on the yield of clarified apple juice obtained from apple pulp of equal masses, in a given time? Biological Knowledge: Enzymes are a class of proteins, which are biological catalysts responsible for speeding up and controlling metabolic reactions, without their shape being altered by the reaction. Pectinase (the enzyme I will be using for my investigation) is under the class of enzymes named hydrolases, which are responsible for catalyzing reactions between a substrate and water, and bind water to certain molecules. In this way, larger molecules are broken up into smaller units. This class of enzymes catalyses the cleavages of peptide bonds in proteins, glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates, and ester bonds in lipids. Enzymes are specifically designed for their target molecules, their substrates, by virtue of their shape, size, and the chemical charges that precisely fit and bond to the substrate molecule. The section of the enzyme that binds the substrate is called the active site. An advantage of using enzymes is that they are specific and do not interact with other components in
Deducing the quantity of acid in a solution
Sofia Gaggiotti Chemistry coursework: Deducing the quantity of acid in a solution 20/03/2008 Index Aim and Background information 3 Hazards 3 Protection 4 Method 5 Previous calculations 5 Making the Solution 6 Equipment needed 6 Quantities of materials needed 8 Procedure 8 Making the Titration 9 Equipment needed 10 Procedure 13 References 15 Results and calculations 16 Evaluation 19 Chemistry coursework: Deducing the quantity of acid in a solution Aim and background information The aim of this experiment is to find how to develop and determine an accurate, precise and reliable concentration of an acid rain solution. 1 To do this, we are going to make first a solution of sodium carbonate with distilled water and then a titration in order to calculate the concentration of sulphuric acid in a solution. Solution: a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In this mixture, a solute is dissolved in a solvent. Solutions are characterized by interactions between the solvent phase and solute molecules or ions that result in a net decrease in free energy. 2 Titration: a titration is a laboratory technique by which we can determine the concentration of an unknown reagent using another reagent that chemically reacts with the unknown. At the equivalence point (or endpoint) the unknown reagent has been reacted with the known reagent.
Affect of sucrose concentration on the rate of respiration.
Biology coursework Investigation- Affect of sucrose concentration on the rate of respiration. Planning Aim and Background information The aim of this investigation is to find out how the affect of changing the sucrose concentration affects the rate of respiration of yeast. The reaction can be measured by the amount of carbon dioxide given of by yeast and ethanol is also produced as a result of the reaction. Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is a unicellular fungus, which is frequently used in baking. The precise classification is a field that uses the characteristics of the cell, ascospore and colony. Physiological characteristics are also used to identify species. One of the better-known characteristics is the ability to ferment sugars for the production of ethanol. Budding yeasts are true fungi of the phylum Ascomycetes, class Hemiascomycetes. The true yeasts are separated into one main order Saccharomycetales. Yeasts multiply as single cells that divide by budding (eg Saccharomyces) or direct division (fission, eg. Schizosaccharomyces), or they may grow as simple irregular filaments (mycelium). In sexual reproduction most yeasts form asci, which contain up to eight haploid ascospores. These ascospores may fuse with adjoining nuclei and multiply through vegetative division or, as with certain yeasts, fuse with other ascospores. The awesome power of yeast genetics is
