Outline and assess sociological explanations of why some communities are subject to more crime than others,focusing on social class and geographicaland/ or ethnic minority communities.
Outline and assess sociological explanations of why
some communities are subject to more crime than others,
focusing on social class and geographical
and/ or ethnic minority communities.
Merton's perspective on Durkheim's 'anomie' has been influential in the sociology of crime and deviance. Similarly, theories such as Albert Cohen's sub cultural theory and the concepts of status frustration and the self- fulfilling prophecy seek to explain why some communities and social strata are subject to more crime than others. Arguably, poverty and inequality are causes inextricably linked with the criminalisation of communities, circumstances which are generally more prevalent in the lives of ethnic minorities and the working classes. Similarly, certain geographical areas face higher poverty than others, internationally and even within Britain itself.
According to an investigation by police- immigrant relations in 1972 'black people were more law- abiding than the general population' (Layton Henry 1992). However as time has progressed, relations between ethnic minorities and the police have become increasingly strained, with official statistics and other data supporting the claim that ethnic minorities are proportionally more likely to commit and be the victim of crimes. A case in point is highlighted in the Macpherson Report, produced after the murder of black teenager, Stephen Lawrence, suggesting that the Metropolitan police service is ingrained with 'institutional racism'.
However comparable to these claims are those that ethnic groups, for example Afro- Caribbean men, are likely to turn to crime as a survival strategy, perhaps as a form of defense against wider racism. Similarly, theorists suggest that one's social class is likely to influence the likelihood of one's involvement in crime.
Merton's functionalist theory of anomie investigated the deviance of the lower American strata in the 1930s. Merton suggested the cause of such anomie to be the inconsistency between the 'American dream' and the reality of economic inequality- rather than a temporary response to the struggle towards modernity as suggested by Durkheim. For those unable to use conventional means to achieve money success, 'deviant adaptations' such as 'innovation' were employed.
'Innovation' is largely attributed as a sociological explanation as to why the lower classes gravitate more easily towards crime. The biases of the class system mean that those in the lower classes are less likely to follow the accepted route to success. For example, a lack of cultural capital denies success in school, high qualifications and subsequently a well- paid career. Crime provides an alternative route to achieve money success.
Similarly, 'retreatism', involving the rejection of both the culturally prescribed goals and institutionally available means, serves as a 'deviant adaptation' of the lower class who turn to ...
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'Innovation' is largely attributed as a sociological explanation as to why the lower classes gravitate more easily towards crime. The biases of the class system mean that those in the lower classes are less likely to follow the accepted route to success. For example, a lack of cultural capital denies success in school, high qualifications and subsequently a well- paid career. Crime provides an alternative route to achieve money success.
Similarly, 'retreatism', involving the rejection of both the culturally prescribed goals and institutionally available means, serves as a 'deviant adaptation' of the lower class who turn to crime. This may be evident in so called 'drop out' individuals who seek to relinquish feelings of inadequacy in the pursuit of deviant activity.
However, Merton fails to explain the inconsistency with regards to the selection of these 'deviant adaptations'. ie. why is one individual prone to 'retreatism' whilst another employs 'innovation' in the crime route to money success?
Albert Cohen develops the concept of working class crime with his subculture theory. Cohen claims that gang delinquency constitutes a way of life in inner city areas. This can be applied to the phenomenon of geographical distribution of crime, not least because urban areas offer more criminal opportunity than rural or even suburban areas. Cohen refutes the pre occupation with money success, focusing more on the desire for immediate gratification. Arguably, this supports the correlation between class and criminal tendency due to the claim that the middle classes are socialised to accept delayed gratification through the route of higher education.
Similarly, Cohen claims that the destructiveness exhibited by delinquent gangs, e.g. vandalism and desecration exhibit their rejection of the norms and values of wider society, drawing on functionalist anomie theory. This can be partially linked to the central themes of functionalism, the idea that criminals are under socialised by conventional means such as the family. Functionalists such as Parsons would argue that the stability of the family is positively correlated to one's ability to function in society. The instability and irregularity of ethnic minority and working class families may result in increased gravitation towards deviance and crime.
Cohen and Merton agree with regards to the fact that adherence to dominant values creates problems for working class males in particular. 'They evolve the delinquent gang status...to hit back at the system that has branded them as failures' (Downes and Rock). Faced by a common problem of adjustment as a result of failure at school, they develop a distinct sub culture characterised by values which differ from those of wider society. According to Cohen 'the delinquent sub culture takes its norms from larger culture but turns them up side down'. Activities which are condemned by wider society are welcomed and applauded by the deviant sub culture, therefore the working class individual is able to achieve status and success in his own domain.
These theories may also be descriptive of ethnic deviance with regards to the prevalence of Latino and black gangs in LA. An example of the deviance exhibited by these groups is found in the initiation ceremonies which commonly involve a new member being beaten up by established members of the gang. This phenomenon again exhibits both the geographical and ethnic significance of crime.
However, conflict theorists offer a different explanation as to the prominent criminality exhibited by ethnic minorities and the working classes. Marxist theory depicts the inequality of the Capitalist system as an inevitable cause of crime. Capital and profit are the only aspirations of those living in a capitalist state which creates a competitive but biased environment in which the working classes inevitably suffer. David Gordon argues that 'crime is rational in a "dog eat dog" society'. Moreover, the subjugated working class is effectively imprisoned to neautralise opposition, they are hidden from view by the very elite which is responsible for its deviance via the active propagation of inequality.
However Graham and Bowling found that social class held no bearing on the likelihood of one committing a crime, yet found that the working classes were more likely to commit a serious crime. There is distinct disagreement within Marxist theory as to explanations of working class deviance. On the one hand the claim is made that crime is inevitable due to the biases of the capitalist system and on the other the assertion that the working classes in fact don't commit more crime it is simply another means of marginalisation at the hands of the elite, via the use of 'selective law enforcement'.
Less ideological conflict theories provide a more balanced view. Conflict theorists employing the sub culture concept examine the conflicting set of values which exist between the classes. Miller states that the lower middle classes are characterised by the search for excitement, macho masculinity and a fatalistic attitude towards life. These traits are manifested in participation in delinquent street gangs. In this respect, the individual is able to adhere to the values of the lower working classes, but in doing so breaks the law which reflects the conventions of the middle classes. This cycle is passed on from generation to generation, but the integral nature of deviance is rooted in the opposition to middle class values.
Clarke et al. stress the fact that deviant sub cultures do not provide sustainable solutions to the problems faced by the working classes. Sub cultures '"solve", but in an imaginary way, problems which at the concrete, material level remain unsolved'. This explains the perpetual nature of crime, particularly among the working classes, external and internal circumstances remain unchanged and the tendency towards the deviant sub culture is passed on to the next generation as the status frustration remains in tact.
However, structuralist theories depict criminality as a pre- determined role among the working classes and , to a lesser extent, ethnic minorities. Studies, regarding 'white collar crime' ( a term coined by Sutherland in 1949) and 'corporate crime' suggest that criminal behaviour may have little to do with external disadvantages. In fact it appears that a white middle/ upper class individual is as likely to commit a crime as a black working class individual. The variation seems to arise merely in terms of motivation, the middle classes spurred on by greed and the working classes by a sense of helplessness and inequality. It is difficult to ascertain the prevalence of corporate crime as it is less likely to be detected or reported. It would certainly undermine the idea that a working class or ethnic individual is significantly more prone to criminality.
This links theoretically to labelling theory, in particular, the work of Becker. Firstly, society's prejudices mean that a working class, ethnic individual or even some one from a particular area is more likely to be considered and condemned as a criminal. For example, a young, Asian adolescent from a sink estate in London who steals a bike would almost certainly be punished more heavily than a white counter part from the commuter belt who committed the same crime. Similarly, this biased societal labelling results in the 'criminal' tag achieving master status, all other roles are marginalised or relinquished until the individual is submerged in criminality.
Howard Becker stated in 1963 'the central fact about deviance... it is created by society... the causes of deviance are located in the social situation of the deviant...' Therefore, due to social inequality, not only are disadvantaged groups likely to be drawn to deviance, they will also be further maligned by the label of 'criminal'. For example, an Afro- Caribbean man in his 20s who is unable to find work due to institutional racism will be subsequently prejudiced against by the police, judiciary and wider society if he commits a crime.
Cultural factors such as increasing anomie disadvantage the working classes and ethnic minorities in a structural sense. As a result areas which are pre dominated by these groups such as council estates in inner city areas are subject to more crime which according to Marxists is 'the natural outgrowth of the capitalist society'. Consensus and conflict theories differ little in their explanations as to why certain communities are subject to more crimes than others , but both negate the factor of choice which results in one's gravitation towards deviance. Labelling theories seek to examine this phenomenon from a more interactionist perspective, describing the disadvantages derived from racism and society's prejudices as a precipitating and perpetuating cause of crime in certain groups and communities. However in the area of crime all theories are explanatory without being prescriptive. Though Merton, Becker and Durkheim can explain the causes of working class crime, none can offer a solution.
