"Discuss the usefulness and limitations of employing metaphors as a means of analysing organisations. Illustrate from organisations with which you are familiar"

By using metaphor our mind is framed into a set view but it must be remembered this is a partial and unbalanced view and therefore the use of metaphors could produce narrow or misleading outlooks.  This is because the metaphor highlights certain aspects while backgrounding or ignoring others.  It is also important to remember that as metaphors stretches the imagination by using suggestive images to draw similarities, distortions can be a risk and ‘constructive falsehoods’ can be taken literally. If we take Morgan’s example ‘the man is like a lion’ we can see the distortions that could arise.  It may be perceived that the man is brave and strong and overlook the fact that he may also timid and a recluse.  And when the ‘constructive falsehood’ is taken to the extreme the metaphor becomes absurd indicating that not only is the man brave and strong but also has fur and four legs.      

Morgan’s theoretical stance is aligned with that of linguist George Lakoff and philosopher Mark Johnson who have done much to raise awareness of the commonness and fundamental nature of metaphor.  They say that in all aspects of life we define our reality in terms of metaphors and then act on the basis of these.  We draw conclusions, set goals, execute plans etc. on the basis of how we structure our experiences through the use metaphors.  Morgan and other theorist’s take the principle that all theory is metaphor and this has significant consequences and just focusing on one metaphor could cause more setbacks than if an open-minded, unbiased approach was applied. Metaphors are inherently paradoxical and a way of seeing created through a metaphor can become a way of not seeing.  No single theory in whatever area of study will provide a perfect point of view.  As Morgan stated, it is “important to remember there is more than one way of thinking about a problem.” 

There are eight standard metaphors used for organisations and below are key terms linked with their concepts.  By considering these terms we can see how these metaphors are applied to organisations.

• Machines – efficiency, maintenance, clockwork, production, control, inputs and outputs, programmes, standardisation
• Organisms – living systems, environmental conditions, adaptation, life cycles, needs, evolution, survival of the fittest
• Brains – learning, mindsets, intelligence, feedback, knowledge, networks, parallel information processing
• Cultures – society, values, beliefs, laws, ideology, diversity, traditions, history, shared vision and mission, qualities, service
• Political Systems – interests and rights, power, hidden agendas, authority, alliances, censorship, leaders, conflict
• Psychic Prisons – conscious and unconscious processes, ego, denial, projection, pain and pleasure principle, workaholics
• Flux and Transformation – constant change, flow, self-organisation, chaos, complexity, butterfly effect, paradox
• Instruments of Domination – alienation, imposing values, charisma, force, exploitation, divide and rule, corporate interest.  

The most common of the metaphors of organisation theory is the machine metaphor.  In the way a machine might be built to accomplish certain tasks, so might an organisation.  This metaphor arose in the 1800’s when many machines where being invented trough the Industrial Revolution and it later become part of Classical management theory trough its relation to structure and efficiently.  The metaphor sees the image of the organisation as ‘a machine designed and constructed by management to achieve predefined goals.’  The image of the type of manager in this organisation is that of ‘an engineer, who designs, builds and operates the organisational machine.’ 

If we consider organisations in today’s business world it is clear that many apply this metaphor in their approach to the management and organisation of their business.  A profit orientated business may use this metaphor to produce a highly efficient organisation where the employees are the ‘nuts and bolts’ and work in a team.  Human ‘resources’ departments are created to allocate ‘manpower’ or ‘fill in a slot’ and if communication ‘breaks down’ there may be a ‘spanner in the works’.  This metaphor in practice can be seen in a large telecommunications business for example.      

In examining another metaphor we can look at culture.  Organisational culture is the personality of the organization. Culture is a pattern of meaning created and maintained by human association through shared values, traditions, and customs.  Members soon come to sense the particular culture of that organisation.  Culture is difficult to express distinctly but you can tell it from what members wear, how the furniture is arranged, what is talked about in the staff room etc.  When looking at organisation we know, we can see that the culture of a large, for-profit corporation is very different from that of a hospital which is in turn different from that of a university.  Corporate culture can be looked at as a system. Inputs include feedback from society, professions, laws, values on competition or service, etc.  This process is based on our assumptions, values and norms e.g. our values on money, time and facilities. Outputs or effects of our culture are for example organisational behaviours, strategies, image, products and services.  

A look at the terms used in the concept of flux and transformation metaphor may make us consider the large multinational corporations which constantly adapt to a changing market or launch in a new area and where a decision made in one division of the company will have an effect on another division.  

Although the use of the machine metaphor, for example, may produce well structured and organised organisations, with problems being dealt with quickly and efficiently and a successful production, Morgan believes that this mechanical way of thinking is ‘so ingrained into our everyday conception of organisations that it is often difficult to organise in any other way.  This is a problem as, in this case, we underemphasize the human aspects of the organisation such as emotion or culture.  Focusing on the basic similarities that the organisation is like a machine illustrates how this simplistic view misleads understanding of emotion and culture and the extent to which an organisation or manager can control them, for example approaching an employee as part of a machine will not encourage commitment or provide adaptability for personal situations.

We need to open up our thinking and remember that many conventional theories on organisation and management are based on this small number of ‘taken-for-grated images and metaphors.’  Morgan seeks to encourage the exploration of alternative metaphors and to create new ways of thinking about organisation.  Metaphors can be used to analyse and diagnose problems and improve management of organisation but only if we acknowledge their limitations.  

Using metaphors encourage us to explore the parallels between an object we know with something less known to us.  This implies they give us better understanding and they are useful as a means of analysing organisations and the application of them in the workplace may be beneficial.  Yet we have also seen that they have their limitations and disadvantages.  Metaphors only reveal similarities between two things, they don’t expose the differences.  They identify similarities between non-identical things and this therefore leads to ignoring sometimes important differences.  This is an important point to bear in mind as it demonstrates that the root metaphors of organisation theory create ‘blind spots in perception and reasoning’ which can lead to significant consequences.  The metaphors of organisation theory have been, or can be taken to extremes but by acknowledging the limitations of these metaphors we can avoid getting carried away.  

If used correctly metaphors can be applied to organisation change, identify problems and resolve conflict and can assist in the reshaping of teams or products but they are narrow, biased views and ‘it is impossible to develop new styles of organisation and management while continuing to think in old ways.’   People within organisations can describe and create their own metaphors that best fit that organisation or can be adapted to best fit a team.  As Morgan states, the challenge for the manager is to become skilled in using metaphor and in turn find the suitable way of seeing and understanding for a particular situation.  This is an important skill that is needed and, as everyone around us is using metaphor in all aspects of life, the ability to do this will have far-reaching effects.

By taking into consideration the limitations that the metaphors of organisation have we can see that no single metaphor or theory is sufficient enough to base an understanding of organisations.  However each gives some understanding and therefore enhances the theorising skills needed in the theory and practice of organisation and management.    

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Handy, C., ‘Understanding Organization’, Penguin Books, 4th Edition, 1993
• Hatch, M., ‘Organization Theory’, Oxford Press, 1997
• Huczynski, A., & Buchanan, D., ‘Organisational Behaviour: an introductory Text’, 4th Edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2001
• Lakoff, George & Johnson, ‘Metaphors we live by’, University of Chicago Press, 1980
• Lawley, James & Tompkins, ‘Metaphors in Mind: Transformation through Symbolic Modelling’, 2000
• Morgan, G. ‘Imaginisation’ Sage, 1997
• Morgan, G., ‘Images of Organisation’ Sage, 2nd Edition, 1997
• Thomas, A. B., ‘Controversies in Management’, Routledge, 1993

• Lawley, J., ‘Metaphors of Organisation’, Part 1 and 2, Effective Consulting Vol.1, No. 4, Pentre Publications, 2001

• www.effectiveconsulting.org.uk

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